Truth about Aboriginal Art

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Regular row, or fight between themselves is a sketch by William Thomas made in 1840. William Thomas was one of four Assistant Protectorates of the Aborigines in the Port Phillip district. The sketch depicts a group or tribe of Aborigines in combat with each other. It is set in the bush in the Port Phillip district. The main focus of the sketch is two Aboriginal brothers threatening each other with traditional weapons, such as boomerangs, shields and whacking sticks. They are surrounded by other Aboriginal men holding similar weapons and also spears. There is no evidence of any Europeans or signs of colonization. The sketch portrays the Aborigines in there raw primitive naked form.

The caption below the picture informs the viewer that William Thomas nicknamed the two men, who are said to be brothers, De Villiers after C. L. J. De Villiers, a young South African bushman who was an officer in charge of rules and regulations for the conduct of the Native Police.

At the time of this sketch Port Phillip was going through the initial stages of the creation of Australias first Native Police Force. The Government back in Britain had opposed the recruitment of Aborigines as police constables. In the early 180s G.A Robinson set up the first native settlements at Flinders Island. Robinson had been appointed Chief Protector by Lord Glenelg following deep concern by church groups regarding the just treatment for Aborigines in the area. Visits from distinguished leaders such as Alexander Maconochie, a Royal Navy officer who acted as secretary to Sir John Franklin, newly appointed Governor of Van Diemens Land, were frequent. Maconochie was greatly impressed by the efficiency of the settlement especially the native law enforcers, who were given restricted yet sufficient powers to control members of their own tribe. Moconochie recommended an experiment whereby local Aborigines would be employed as a Native Police force under white officers. De Villiers was appointed as officer in charge, laying down special regulations for conduct of the Native Police.

The sketch by Thomas promotes a view of Aborigines as primitive people in need of proper food, clothing as well as spiritual direction. The sketch represents a dispute that has erupted into a fight in a native settlement and the natives surrounding the two men or brothers supposedly are native law enforcers of this particular settlement. Thomas knew the Aboriginal people well and said that gatherings between tribes were usually peaceful and if there was any quarreling or fighting it would be settled quickly and followed by a Corroboree.

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Thomas was a high minded Wesleyan ex-schoolmaster, who held the naïve delusion that if the white man wore on his face a smile as a symbol of the love of Christ in his heart for the black man, if he used loving kindness and got the Blackman to read the bible, all would be well. Thomas saw Aborigines as individuals and enjoyed their wit and humour and believed that they needed someone to stand up for them. This was in contrast to many white settlers who saw the Aborigines as a problem.

This sketch was Thomass way of insisting that with some spiritual direction, clothes and education these primitive simple people could fill out the ranks of police scattered thinly across large areas of the continent. They would become the white mans economical servants and in theory this would improve the relationship between Aborigines and white people. Thomas uses the sketch to promote the idea that Aborigines are able to sort out their own disputes effectively and it thus adds support to the formation of the Native Police.

Although many groups in the Port Philip District agreed with Thomass view, there were also a large number who didnt. Back in England at this time the House of Commons were opposed to the recruitment of Aborigines as police constables, mainly because it feared the tendency of natives to take advantage of their new status and possession of firearms to repay tribal scores.

Another important group in the colony who disagreed with the scheme of Native Police were the squatters. The squatters believed these native settlements would take up precious land that could be used for farming instead.

The watercolor painting done in 188 by William Anderson Corthorne shows mounted over-Landers in battle against an enormous army of Aborigines at a river in the Port Phillip District. This painting exaggerates the threat of the natives to the white people and suggests that these natives were savage and if given the power of a firearm could fight back against the whites. It was images such as these that increased the white peoples fears of Aborigines and produced groups who were against the establishment of the Native Police.

After many attempts to build a Native Police Force in the late 180s, a native Village in Narre Warren led by Captain Lonsdale who employed De Villiers as an officer in charge of the native police, was established. De Villiers would often use bad language towards the Aboriginal police, drink heavily and encourage children to leave the mission. It is for this reason that Thomas nicknamed the two Aboriginal brothers De Villiers which was a direct attack against him, because De Villiers started a dispute as well as caused distress within the settlement, which is exactly what the two aboriginal brothers are depicted as doing.

After the resignation of De Villiers and the new allocation of the settlement the Native Police force was finally established in the mid 1840s. Thomas had achieved his goal of creating Australias first group of Native Police .

Thomas saw the Aboriginals as individuals. He enjoyed their wit and humour and continually battled with the Government for financial assistance.

Thomas was one of four Assistant Protectors of the Aborigines who took up their duties in the Port Philip colony in 18. He was responsible for the Central Protectorate District, which included the Woiwarung (Yarra) and Bunurong (coastal Port Philip and the western part) tribes.

As Thomas was entering the Port Philip Colony in 180 G.A Robinson the founder of these Aboriginal settlements had started one at Flinders Island. Alexander Maconochie, a Royal Navy officer who acted as private secretary to Sir John Franklin, newly appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemens land visited the settlement and was extremely impressed with the use of selected Aborigines as constables to control members of their own tribe. In 187 Maconochie wrote separate reports to Franklin, Governor Bourke and Lord Glenelg, suggesting that the settlement of Port Philip provided on opportunity for experimenting with the employment of local Aborigines as a Native Police Force, under white officers, possessing restricted but sufficient powers to control regions remote from Melbourne.

Maconochie was warmly supported by Sir J.Franklin and G.K Holden, private secretary to Sir R.Bourke, largely because of the apparent civilizing possibilities of the scheme.

Throughout the colony many leaders such as Captain Lonsdale, the man in charge of recruiting the natives, thought having natives as constables with restricted powers was practical as well as economical. This was because Aborigines had been found so useful as trackers of runaway convicts, and in some other quasi-police roles, that governments were prone to favour the employment of such economical servants, if only to fill out the ranks of police scattered thinly across large areas of the continent.

However back in England the House of Commons were opposed to the recruitment of Aborigines as police constables, mainly because it feared the tendency of natives to take advantage of their new status and possession of firearms to repay tribal scores.

Thomass sketch is suggesting that these un-educated people need to be cared for and guided, therefore the need for native police was mandatory. The constables could put an end to these inter-tribal disputes that erupt into battle, in this case between two brothers.

This sketch was a direct attack against the South African bushman De Villiers. On September 187 Captain Lonsdale recruited a force of natives under the command of the whites. The next month he appointed De Villiers as an officer in charge, laying down special regulations for conduct of native police.

In November De Villiers took his men to the spot allocated for the native police village at Narre Warren near Dandenong. A bitter feud between De Villiers and missionary George Langhorne erupted in December 187. According to Langhornes complaints, De Villiers ridiculed his efforts at the mission, used bad language to Aborigines, drank heavily, and encouraged children to leave the Mission. After much debate and investigation de Villiers resigned. By September 188 Lonsdale re-appointed De Villiers to command the native police, and to base them in a paddock adjoining Lonsdales residence, where hey would be under his ever-watchful eye. Further complaints against De Villiers followed, mainly from George Smith. By January 18 Lonsdale found De Villiers not so attentive and in a month De Villiers resigned for a second and final time, to take up inn keeping and wool growing along the Dandenong road.

Thomas gives the two Aboriginal men fighting, the nicknames De Villiers because De Villiers caused so much dispute and distress within the native settlement. Thomas, a Wesleyan by conviction, and a man who longed to tell the black man that Jesus was keeping a place for him in the sky, for he contained in his person childlike simplicity of manners with great goodness of heart, believed that for the whites to live and grow with each other men like De Villiers must be excluded.

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Many philosophers in the Medieval period aimed to reconcile theistic belief with pagan philosophy. Describe and then critically assess how successful you consider such attempts to be.

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"Knowing what a thing is" and "knowing that a thing exists" are fundamentally distinct truths (Exodus 14).

Introduction

Many philosophers believe that first century Christianity and the New Testament were heavily influenced by pagan philosophical systems. Nearly all of the medieval thinkers, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim were pre-occupied with some version of the attempt to amalgamate philosophy with religion. For example Philo Judaeus (Philo of Alexandria) (0 B.C.E.-50 C.E.) was an Alexandrian Jewish philosopher who tried to integrate Greek philosophy with Judaism by means of an mythical interpretation of the scripture. According to Philo, the personal God of scripture is identical with the Form of the Good in Plato. Accessed http//www.philosophypages.com/ph/plat.htm

As the concept and practice of mysticism developed through the early centuries of church history, it took on a very different form in the West than it did in the East. While Eastern orthodoxy focused on the divinization of man and the spread of the holy spirit within the believer's soul (as cited "Mystical Forms in Eastern Orthodoxy", Affirmation & Critique. Vol. III, No. 4 October 18) a different type of mysticism emerged in the West in which Greek philosophy was integrated into selected theistic ideas. Shortly after the death and resurrection of Christ, some in the ancient world who were philosophers also became Christians, while others who were Christians would eventually become philosophers. Already by the second century an attempt to reconcile Christian faith and pre-Christian learning had been undertaken. Church leaders such as Justin Martyr (executed in Rome, 165), Origen and Gregory of Nyssa (ordained Bishop of Nyssa, 7) are examples of prominent thinkers who tried to understand the relationship between Christian enlightenment and Greek philosophy. They then tried to articulate this relationship into a unified concept.

Buy cheap Many philosophers in the Medieval period aimed to reconcile theistic belief with pagan philosophy. Describe and then critically assess how successful you consider such attempts to be. term paper

They argue that the Christian Scripture, offered a rational understanding of the nature of divinity, the meaning of history, and the end of humanity in a way, which exceeded any previous natural philosophy. Since the beginning of the Christian era some have been convinced that Christianity answers questions raised by reason, but more comprehensively than philosophy has been able to. However, it was during the Middle Ages, in the thirteenth century, in the latin-speaking West that Christian philosophy found its most complete enunciation.

Regarding the relationship between faith and reason in the Middle Ages, medieval philosophers did not believe that you could start from belief and then somehow arrive at knowledge. On the contrary, none taught that one could begin at knowledge and end at faith. No theologian seriously considered that there was such a thing as Christian reason or a mystical reason. This doesn't mean that medieval theologians did not think that man could reason with out the divine intervention of God but rather that God gave to all people the natural capability of acquiring a true, although limited, knowledge of the first principles and causes of things.

The medievals argued in accord with the psalmist and the apostle Paul that the existence of God ought to be comprehensible by the powers of the natural intellect alone (cf. Pss. 14, 1; Rom. 10).

Augustine of Hippo (54-40), was the first great medieval philosopher and he was a follower of Manichaeanism who then converted to Christianity. Augustine developed a system of thought that incorporated Neoplatonic elements through which later amendments and elaborations, eventually became the authoritative doctrine of Christianity. He argued that religious faith and philosophical understanding should complement one another rather than become enemies of one another. After his conversion from Manicheism to Neoplatonism, Augustine learned to draw a distinction between the material world and the intelligible world. The former is sense-perceptible, unsteady and perishable, whereas the latter is intellectually apprehendable, immutable and eternal.

In this essay, I will attempt to defend the possibility of a distinctively Christian practice of philosophy in which faith and reason are united. First, I present the rational method introduced and developed by Greek philosophers, and the distinction between philosophy and theology. Next, I consider some objections to a synthesis of faith and reason. Third, I note some historical precedents to a medieval Christian synthesis, beginning with the early church. Finally, I argue for the coherence of the idea of a distinctively Christian practice of philosophy, taking as my model the integration envisioned by the medieval theologian St. Thomas Aquinas (15-175)

Augustine (54-40) provided a philosophical basis for faith in Western Christianity. God was regarded as eternal, unchangeable,. omniscient, omnipotent, a being of supreme goodness, supreme love, and supreme beauty, and the Creator of the universe.

In contrast with Plato, who regarded the world of Ideas as independent in itself, Augustine held that Ideas exist within the mind of God, and stated that everything was created with Ideas as the originals. In opposition to Neoplatonism, which held that the world necessarily originated from God, Augustine advocated creation theory, saying that God freely created the world from nothing, not using any material. Then, why is the human being sinful? For Augustine, the reason is that Adam, the first human ancestor, misused freedom and betrayed God. Fallen people can be saved only through Gods grace. Augustine said that faith in God, hope for salvation, and love for God and ones neighbors are the way to true happiness, and recommended the three virtues of faith, hope, and love.

Firstly, it is claimed that elements of Platos philosophy appear in the New Testament; secondly the New Testament reflects the influence of Stoicism; and thirdly the ancient Jewish philosopher Philo was a source of St Johns use of the Greek word logos as a description of Jesus. In this essay I will attempt to argue for each of these claims and analyze and critically assess each one in turn.

When trying to determine whether Christianity of the first century A.D. borrowed any of its essential beliefs from the pagan philosophical systems of that time; one must look at whether first century Christianity was reflected in the pages of the New Testament. Is Christianity a religion; which fused elements of differing belief systems?

Prior to the introduction of Aristotle's texts into western Europe, there existed no definitive demarcation between the realms of faith and reason in Latin Christian theology. St. Anselm (10-110) was the most prominent Christian theologian-philosopher of the twelfth century. His understanding of faith and reason represents an alternative to St. Thomas Aquinas's division of the relationship between the two realms of knowledge. See G. R. Evans' study, Anselm and Talking about God (Oxford Clarendon Press, 178).

But it is Plato who utilizes this kind of religious tradition in such a way that it makes its greatest contribution to philosophy. In many places, for example in the myth of the Phaedrus, he presents a similar view of the souls nature, its origin and its destiny, but always carefully adapted to serve his own purposes. Man cannot be looked on in the mechanistic way of the atomists, but must be thought to possess within himself a principle of human personality which is more truly himself than the body is.

From the time of Plato and Aristotle (84- B.C.) to the Neoplatonists, to Jewish and Muslim philosophers of the tenth and eleventh centuries, there has existed a strong belief within Western philosophy that the existence of a single God is provable by rational means. "For those who lived this tradition, denying the existence of God shows itself to be irrational, a sign of an intellectual and moral deficiency and an offense against reason. Hence in Psalm 14 it is, finally, only the "fool" who can utter in his heart "there is no God." All this is to say that for the medieval theologians the existence of God was not an article of faith but of rational demonstration".

Neoplatonism

Greek philosophy continued into the Roman period, which followed the Hellenistic period. The culmination of the philosophy of the Hellenistic-Roman period was Neoplatonism, a philosophical viewpoint whose most eminent proponent was Plotinus (A. D. 05-70). Neoplatonism was a derivative of ancient Platonic philosophy, it was popular from the third through to the sixth centuries and came in two forms, Hellenic and Christian. The main sources of Christian Neoplatonism consisted of the dialogues of Plato, the writings of Aristotle and the Bible. It differs from Hellenic Platonism because of it's religious orientation.

In the past, Greek philosophy had suggested a dualism that regarded God and matter as conflicting with each other. In contrast, Plotinus advocated monism, claiming that God is everything. "The human soul flows out into the sensual material world, and at the same time seeks to return to nous (reason) and to God".

Basically people should not be governed by material things and their souls should rise to the level of understanding and perceiving God and as a result of this perception, become united with Him. Such an achievement was regarded as the supreme virtue. Plotinus said that the human being becomes completely united with God in ecstasy, which he regarded as the highest state of mind.

Hellenistic philosophy culminated with Plotinus and Neoplatonism had a great impact on Christian philosophy, which was to emerge next.

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Trap-Ease

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Introduction

Trap-Ease is new product designed to remedy household mouse problems. Martha House, president, is the only sales person as well as being in charge of all marketing. The product has won awards including first place in the National Hardware Show. It has also appeared in an article in Canadian Business and on the MarketPlace television show.

The product itself seemed to be very "simple yet clever device" . However initial sales and revenues were extremely below expectations. This can be attributed to a variety of problems that Trap-Ease has. These will all be explained in the following pages. As well as recommendations will be made in order to rectify the situation.

Strengths

Trap-Ease has a great number of advantages over its competition. It has a variety of assets which are fundamental to its survival in its market.

The Trap-Ease has won awards including the National Hardware Show in Toronto. It has been featured in Canadian National, appeared on the MarketPlace television show and was also reported on in other trade publications. Trap-Ease has been distinguished in these reports from every other product in its class. Trap-Ease is thought to be an innovative new product.

Trap-Ease is a very simple idea that consumers would respond to. The mouse climbs through the tube which tips over and traps it. It provides a more humane way of trapping mice. The mouse can either be let go somewhere else or left in the trap to suffocate. Other devices are very painful for the mice and sometimes extremely cruel. There is no mess to clean up after when using Trap-Ease, the customer can simply dispose of the trap entirely or re-use it.

Trap-Ease is a very small business just starting out. Many people rather deal with smaller companies, as it can be more personal. The owner can deal with customers more intimately.

Weaknesses

There are many various items that plague the Trap-Ease business. A too limited target market, not enough advertisement and overpricing were among the most prominent.

Housewives were the main target market for the Trap-Ease product, however more and more they are leaving the home life and going back to work. Therefore Trap-Ease was targeting a shrinking market. Furthermore, "there is not much demand in the middle income and upper social class for a mouse trap." This current target market is not currently in demand of mousetraps. The research done in this domain was only between males and females; no additional studies were done to identify other target markets.

There is no clear mission statement to differentiate Trap-Ease from its competitors. Without a mission statement they are also not able to place themselves in the minds of their customers. Consumers are not exactly sure what the purpose of the product is. This was the case as people were buying the trap as a novelty item and conversation piece instead of its desired purpose. If a mission statement had been made clear than the consumers would have only had mousetrap in their minds, not just a toy.

The customers are not repeat buying the product, which can cause problems to the sales. This could be due to the fact that the product is inefficient in some way. The material used to create the product could be deficient. The method of the trap may also not be effective or providing to the needs of its consumers. The consumers could also be reusing the product and therefore do not need to buy anymore.

There is also the problem of pricing. Trap-Ease is almost five times more expensive than its competitors. The other products have been around much longer and have developed loyal consumers. Consumers might be hesitant to try a new product when the one they have been using has always worked, especially when it is more expensive. The target market was housewives who generally do not pay premium-price for things they can get for cheaper.

Advertising is also a huge problem for Trap-Ease. There is definitely not enough of it being done. There was a reliance on the trade shows as advertising, however the target market did not attend these shows, nor read the magazines in which Trap-Ease was featured. There are also not enough people in the marketing department of this company. Martha House cannot be in charge of all marketing and be the only salesperson. A company needs a team of people in order to get the job done.

The budget has not been carefully planned out; money has not been assigned to the right areas. There is too much focus on trade shows and traveling and not enough focus on advertising. Martha House also overestimated the amount of sales that were to occur during the first year. This has caused the a serious problem for revenues as she has already assigned where these profits should be going.

Opportunities

Competition devices, such as rodenticides, are unsafe, and federal law have prohibited their use in areas where food is being prepared. Trap-Ease could therefore be introduced in the food industry market. It offers a clean and humane way to get rid of mice. Other businesses that need sanitary workspaces could also be targeted restaurants, factories, hospitals, schools, nursing homes, daycare centers, etc.

People are beginning to become more environmentally friendly. They have started living their lives while being more in touch with nature. Animal cruelty is thought of as being extremely appalling. This movement against hurting animals is important to Trap-Ease as it offers a more civilized way to rid households and businesses of their mouse problems. Instead of killing them a mouse can be trapped inside the tube and then brought someplace else to be released.

Threats

Trap-Ease has many threats to its business. There is a variety of competition out there for Trap-Ease. There are other forms of traps, ultrasound machines, poisons and exterminators. There are also internal problems which could threaten the company's success.

There are competitors in the mousetrap business with cheaper mousetraps in which some customers could already be loyal to. Their traps are small, reliable and less expensive. Snap traps were probably the first ones developed, people use them because they get the job done. Multicatch traps can repeatedly catch mice and are therefore reusable. There are also single-catch live traps that can trap the mice while keeping it alive. There are those that can catch more than one mouse at a time.

There are also electronic mousetraps that are designed to kill mice very quickly. The mouse steps on the device and are zapped and killed. They do not require any sort of bait.

Poisons, such as rodenticides, are also effective in the elimination of mice. The mice eat the poison and eventually die. Glue boards are usually used in combination with poisons so that the mice do not run away.

An ultrasonic device can be used to keep mice away. A high-pitched noise is projected that is irritable to the mice.

Trap-Ease also has a budgetary problem, which is a huge threat to them being successful. Martha House has overestimated the amount of traps that were going to be sold. She has not put the money in the right places in order to have a successful business.

Recommendations

Trap-Ease needs to resolve the many challenges it is faced with if it would like to have a successful business. The following are suggestions to initiate this change.

The target market needs to be expanded. There should be more market segments, which include businesses such as factories, manufacturers, restaurants, and other businesses that need safe, clean, and effective mousetraps.

A clear mission statement is essential when presenting a new product to an existing market. The consumers need to know what separates this product from the others. They also must understand what exactly this product is for. There cannot be any confusion about the product. As an example the mission statement could be "An easy, safe, clean solution to your pest control problems with the best quality at the lowest possible price."

In order to increase repeat buying of the product it must be made less durable so that it is more disposable. Cheaper materials could be used, which would also decrease the cost. This would allow consumers to purchase more products increasing sales. This would also settle the pricing problem. It could now be sold at a cheaper price because of inexpensive materials. It would have another advantage over its competitors, as it would not be so expensive.

There is a definite need for a marketing department, not just one person. Also more sales people should be hired. There should be more funds directed to advertising and less going towards traveling and trade shows. Trap-Ease could increase advertising by "product testing, mailers, internet, and personal selling".

Trap-Ease should also rethink its channels of distribution. As its target market was housewives, it was only directed at supermarkets, hardware stores and drugstores. It should focus more on restaurants, factories, and hospitals. It could also distribute its product through the Internet.

Trap-Ease could also do more market research to determine exactly what the consumers want in a mousetrap. It could also focus on providing better customer service with its consumers and retailers.

Conclusion

Trap-Ease has a very promising idea that with the right planning could become a thriving company. In order for it to succeed it needs to adopt a few changes. The target market must be increased to include businesses such as restaurants, factories and hospitals. A mission statement must be clearly established to consumers. There must be an increase in advertising to the right markets. The budget must be improved to direct more funds to the advertisement department. More employees, especially in sales, are required. Different distribution channels such as the Internet should be explored.

"IPM for Rodents in Schools". The Pennsylvania Integrated Pest Management Program. September 10, 00. http//paipm.cas.psu.edu/schoolmn/rodents.pdf.

Kotler, Philip, Gary Armstrong, Peggy G. Cunningham. Principles of Marketing. 5th Canadian edition. New Jersey Prentice-Hall, 00. (-).

Muir, Robert. "Mousetrap Marketing". Prometheus Equity Partners. September 18, 00. http//www.pepvc.com/Publications/mousetrap.htm.

"Rodent Traps". Professional Pest Control Products. http//www.pestproducts.com/rodent_traps.htm#Live.

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French and English goverment

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Both the French and the English government were very complex during the 17th century.

The French government 'had considerable power, which increased' (course guide pg18) over

time. France was a country that was combined by numerous cultures. The relationship

between the crown and it's 'more powerful institutional subjects' (Blk pg7) was a pattern of

Cheap Custom Essays on French and English goverment

overstated demands that were made by the royals.

In some of the French provinces the Governments were known as 'Pays d' etat' these had

control over the taxation in their province and were mainly concerned with local interest.

People saw their privileges as an obstacle that could affect the central government.

'Marillac' wanted to introduce the system of elections which existed in the rest of France

in to the provinces but the only way this could be done was if the province raised enough

money to compensate the crown. There were some regions were no estates existed,

known as 'Pay d' election' the taxes were levied by 'elus' which were officials that was

selected by the central government. They were among some of the richest men in their

area; one of the reasons may have been due to no tax that they paid. They were able to

give exemptions to tenants of their friends but this placed a huge burden on the

community that was unable to pay. This system broke the province but it did increase

the wealth of a few individuals.

One system that was effective was the 'Paulitte' it was an effective way of stability that

produced local 'elites' that had a vested interest in securing a central government. Once

this system was in place the crown exploited it, by increasing the financial burden on the

existing officers so it could raise more profits.

During the 17th century each region in France was ruled by a Governor and Lieutenant

Governor these were normally taken from nobility. As time went on their powers soon

became less and were taken over by the 'Intendants' their role was extended by

'Richelieu.' Office was an important step up the ladder of promotion within the

Sovereign courts of justice. Most intendants came from well established families. Based

on their duties that had to be carried out, would very much depend on the level of status

that was received. 'They acted as the eyes and ears of Paris.' (Blk pg) Their role was to fix

the level of the 'tallie' instead of leaving it to the local officials. The intendants also had

a high degree of supervision over the activities of the local officials. Was this so more

money could be claimed for the intendants? Intendants were normally outsiders to the

generalite, they had no interest in the locality, and this was so the risk of becoming too

involved in the life of the 'Generalite' was reduced. If they did become to close they

would have been moved to another post after a few years. The intendants were only there

to satisfy the needs of the crown.

Upholding of the law and order in the provinces rested with the sovereign courts,

especially the Parliaments. They all saw themselves as sovereign courts based in their

own region. Parliament had jurisdiction over everything to do with 'Fiefs, finance, police

matters, defence of cities.' (Blk Pg74). The Paris parliament had very little influence on

events that went on in the provinces even though all the Parliaments from other regions

based themselves on the most important 'Parliament of Paris.' (Course guide pg1) There were

great variations between the French communities due to the geographical regions. In

Northern France the communities where Sergneunal control was at it greatest,

communities of the south were at their weakest. In Southern France assembles were

know as 'Consulats' These communities has a strong self-government and community

institutions were highly developed. Local communities were governed by assemblies and

in England by part time un- professional officers who were appointed from the local

gentry. As for the rural parts of Ireland the organization depended on Dublin and how

much area it wished to control.

Areas such as the mountain region and the northern borders of France were strongly

defended. Northern Assemblies were known as 'Echevinages.' The elected Leaders

were know as 'echeviens' or 'mayors' these were dependent on the local 'Seigneur' The

Assembly and offices did not count for much when there was a powerful 'seigneur'

The most powerful assemblies were the ones in the mountains where the authority of

'seigneurs and the crown were weak. There was a high rate of participation, as the

jurisdiction covered a large area as this was essential to survive. There were variations

between the relationships of the Parish officers and assemblies. In France the assembly

was more essential than its officers who were seen as just agents. This assembly formed

the connection between the community and the higher levels of government. In England

it was the other way around. The officers were the tie between the community and the

high levels of Government, ecclesiastical and secular, not the vestry.

The urban boroughs were governed by corporations.

In England the most of the ordinary people were very remote from the king's

government. Generally people of normal background were likely to serve in a less

important local government especially in parishes and towns. There was 'much tension

between the local community and the central government' (The Stuart age pg 6) as they wanted

to interfere with local dealings. 'The country was ruled by a network of officials, most of

whom were unpaid.' (Course guide pg16) but this did gain them social status, local control and

some may of gained financial control from there situation.

In the early part of the 17th century, lord lieutenants, deputy lieutenants and Justices of

the Peace were the main officials of the English Local Government unlike the Governor

and lieutenants in France whose power had declined. This meant that the power and

status of the 'Sheriffs' would decline by the early part of the century the only

responsibility the sheriff had was to preside over the county court. There main

responsibility was for 'more than one county' (The Stuart age pg 7) and these were usually

assisted by Deputies. He was chiefly responsibly for maintaining the militia, that

freeholders provided arms and to defend the realm.

The 'Justices of the Peace' took most of the weight from the local government. Some

even carried out their 'duties without pay', (The Stuart age pg 7) as this was an honour to be a

'JP.' Gentlemen were taught from birth that it was a perfect gentleman to serve the

community; it would hold high social status and local power if this was gained. JP's were

added as magistrates in the county courts, they were able to sit in judgement on criminal

cases, protect forest wild life which belonged to the king, all this with out pay. The

Crown had the formal right to appoint a JP, even though is was of limited power, it was

no good placing a loyal man of low social status on the bench in order to secure a

unpopular royal policy, that went against the wishes of a wealthy landowner. The

important responsibility that was held by the Lord Lieutenants, Deputy Lieutenants and

JP's was to act as a direct contact between the Crown and the localities. They too acted as

our eyes and ears which were very similar to the duties that was required of the

'Indendants' in France.

They were able to channel decisions that had been made by the Crown to the locals and

the Privy Council; this also worked the other way to as they were able to tell the Royal

Government the opinion of the country from the locals.

Not only did the Government have the eyes and ears of the Lord Lieutenants, Deputy

Lieutenants and the JP's but there was other ways of maintaining contact, gathering and

providing information from the locals. The Council of the North was staffed by

Professionals. Lawyers and local men who were directly responsible to the Privy Council

helped maintain their contact. In Britain the relationship between the community and the

parish was different from France. The Vestry and assembly were very much of one but

the 'General de la paroisse carried out the functions of both bodies, this gave them

considerable control over the church. In the British Isle the ecclesiastical parish was a

main unit of administration but in France the parish church was used as a place for

showing community harmony and appreciation. Symbols of power were also put on

display. Depending on where a church was placed was an important factor it also gave

the community life. 'Not only did the church control public opinion, but it also moulded

it.' (blk pg8)

The church played an important role in swaying the authority of the crown. It was

believed that religious uniformity was undividable from political order

The crown was able to rely on the votes from the Archbishops and the Bishops in the

House of Lords. But as for the local parish this may not have been the case as the JP's

'gave instructions to the church wardens and overseers of the poor for each parish to levy

the poor rate from all householders' (Princes and Peoples pg0)

In England and France the governments they had held many important political talents in

the planning of support from all there allies. 'Patronage was the oil which kept the wheels

of government turning' (Blk pg70).

France was mainly driven by tax assessments and the collection of money from where

they could. But in England the officials had more of a law and order role and were also

unpaid for there duties that were took on. Social status also is one of the major ties, and

this causes conflict between relations. In both countries there aim was to endeavour

standardization of practice and agree to this. Again it all comes down to three main areas,

powerful people, taxes and religion.

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The Little Prince (english) chapters 1-9

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Chapters IIII

Summary

Chapter I

But [a grown-up] would always answer, Thats a hat. Then I wouldnt talk about boa constrictors or jungles or stars. I would put myself on his level and talk about bridge and golf and politics and neckties. The novels narrator says that when he was six years old, before he became a pilot, he saw in a book a picture of a boa constrictor devouring a wild animal. In the same book, the narrator read that boa constrictors must hibernate for six months after swallowing their prey in order to digest it. Fascinated by this information, the narrator drew his first drawing, which he calls Drawing Number One. The drawing, a picture of a boa constrictor digesting an elephant, looked like a lumpy blob with two flat lines tapering off to the left and right. But grown-ups were not frightened by the picture, because they thought it was supposed to be a hat.

To explain his drawing to adults, the narrator drew Drawing Number Two, an x-ray view of Drawing Number One that showed the elephant inside the snake. Disturbed by this image, grown-ups advised the narrator to give up drawing and pursue geography, arithmetic, and grammar instead. Realizing that grown-ups would always require things to be explained to them, the narrator decided not to be an artist and became a pilot instead. He admits that the geography he learned did prove to be useful for flying.

The narrators opinion of adults never improved. Every time he met a grown-up, he would test him by showing him Drawing Number One. The grown-ups would always think it was a picture of a hat. Consequently, the narrator knew he could talk with the grown-ups only about boring, pragmatic topics like politics and neckties.

Chapter II

The narrator feels lonely his whole life until one day, six years before he tells his story, he crashes his plane in the middle of the Sahara desert. As the situation is beginning to look dire, the pilot is shocked to hear an odd little voice asking him to draw a sheep. He turns to see the little prince. The prince looks like a small, blond child, but he stares intently at the pilot without the fear that a child lost in the desert would have. The pilot does not know how to draw a sheep, so instead he sketches Drawing Number One, and he is astounded when the little prince recognizes it as a picture of an elephant inside a boa constrictor. The little prince rejects Drawing Number One, insisting that he needs a drawing of a sheep. After drawing three different sheep that the prince rejects, the pilot finally draws a box and gives it to the little prince. He says that the box contains exactly the type of sheep for which he is looking. This drawing makes the little prince very happy. The prince wonders if the sheep will have enough grass to eat, explaining that the place where he lives is quite small.

Chapter III

The pilot tries to find out where his mysterious new friend comes from, but the little prince prefers asking questions rather than answering them. He questions the pilot about his plane and what it does, and the pilot tells the little prince that it allows him to fly through the air. The little prince takes comfort in the fact that the pilot also came from the sky, asking him what planet he comes from. The pilot is surprised by this question and tries to find out what planet the little prince comes from. But the little prince ignores the pilots queries and admires the sheep the pilot has drawn for him. The pilot offers to draw a post and a string to tie the sheep to so that it wont get lost, but the little prince laughs. The sheep will not get lost, he says, because he comes from a very small planet.

Chapter IV

From his conversation with the little prince, the narrator realizes that the planet the little prince comes from is only the size of a house. The narrator explains that when astronomers discover new planets, they give them numbers instead of names. The narrator is pretty sure that the little prince lives on Asteroid B-61, which was first sighted by a Turkish astronomer in 10. The astronomers presentation of his discovery was ridiculed at that years International Astronomical Congress because he wore traditional Turkish clothes. After a Turkish dictator ordered all his subjects to begin wearing European clothing, the astronomer presented his report again in 10 and was well received.

The narrator insists that he is telling us these details about the princes planet only to satisfy his grown-up readers. He says that grown-ups can understand only facts and figures; they never wonder about essential qualities like beauty and love. Grown-ups decide what is beautiful by measuring how old a person is or how much a house costs. To believe in the existence of the little prince, grown-ups need more proof than simply being told that the prince asked the narrator to draw him a sheep. They demand further, quantifiable proof of the little princes existence.

The narrator also mentions that he wants his book to be read carefully, as it has been very painful for him to recollect these memories of his little departed friend. The narrator worries that he is growing old, and he writes and illustrates his story so he will not forget the little prince. Drawing the pictures in particular reminds the narrator of what its like to be a child. He acknowledges, however, that he cannot see sheep through the walls of boxes, because like all humans, he has had to grow old.

Chapter V

Each day, the pilot learns a bit more about the little princes home. On the third day of the little princes visit, he finds out that the prince wants the sheep to eat the baobab seedlings that grow on his planet. Baobabs are gigantic trees whose roots could split the princes tiny planet into pieces. The little prince notes that one must be very careful to take care of ones planet. Since all planets have good plants and bad plants, one must remain vigilant and disciplined, uprooting the bad plants as soon as they start to grow. The prince remembers a lazy man who always procrastinated and ignored three small baobab bushes that eventually grew to overtake the mans planet. At the princes instruction, the narrator illustrates the overgrown planet as a warning to children. He adds that the baobabs pose an everyday threat that most people deal with without even being aware of it. The narrator states that the lesson to be learned from the story of the baobabs is so important that he has drawn them more carefully than any other drawing in the book.

Chapter VI

On his fourth day with the little prince, the narrator becomes aware of just how small the little princes planet really is. The little prince is surprised that on Earth, he has to wait for the sun to go down to see a sunset. On his planet, a person can see the end of the day whenever he likes by simply moving a few steps. The prince mentions that one day he saw forty-four sunsets and that sunsets can cheer a person up when he or she is sad. He refuses to tell the narrator, however, whether or not he was sad on the day he saw forty-four sunsets.

Chapter VII

If some one loves a flower of which just one example exists among all the millions and millions of stars, thats enough to make him happy … But if the sheep eats the flower, then for him its as if, suddenly, all the stars went out. On his fifth day in the desert, the little prince wonders if his new sheep will eat both bushes and flowers. The pilot, who is trying to repair his plane, replies that sheep will eat anything, and the little prince asks him what use a flowers thorns are if they dont protect the flower. The pilot, frustrated with his engine and worried by his lack of food and water, yells that he is too busy with serious matters to answer the princes questions. Furious, the little prince accuses the pilot of acting like a grown-up instead of seeing whats really important. The little prince argues that if a truly unique flower exists on a persons planet, nothing is more important than wondering if a sheep will eat that flower. He then bursts into tears. Suddenly realizing that his new friends happiness is the most serious matter of all, the narrator cradles the little prince in his arms and comforts him by assuring the little prince that his flower will be fine. He offers to draw a muzzle for the sheep.

Chapter VIII

The prince tells the narrator all about his flower. One day, the prince notices a mysterious new plant sprouting on his planet. Worried that it might be a new type of baobab, he watches it cautiously at first. The sprout soon grows into a rose, a beautiful but vain creature who constantly demands that the little prince take care of her. The little prince loves the rose very much and is happy to satisfy her requests. He waters her, covers her with a glass globe at night, and puts up a screen to protect her from the wind. One day, however, the little prince catches the rose on the verge of making a minor lie. The rose says to the prince, Where I come from, even though she grew from a seed on the little princes planet and therefore does not come from anywhere. The roses lie makes the prince doubt the sincerity of her love. He grows so unhappy and lonely that he decides to leave his planet. The prince tells the pilot that he would not have left if he had looked at the roses deeds instead of her words. He realizes that the rose actually loves him, but he knows he is too young and inexperienced to know how to love her.

Chapter IX

On the day of the little princes departure from his planet, he cleans out all three of his volcanoes, even the dormant one, and he uproots all the baobab shoots he can find. He waters his rose a final time. As he is about to place the glass globe over the roses head, he feels like crying. He says good-bye to the rose. At first, she refuses to reply, but then she apologizes, assures the little prince that she loves him, and says she no longer needs him to set the globe over her. She says she will be fine without him to take care of her. Urging the little prince to leave, the rose turns away so he will not see her cry.

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Effective Practices in Increased Student Performances

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Description of Program

The availability of general education and special education preschool programs is the key to success for students now and later when they enter school age programs. My dual role as a special education administrator and a general education advisory board member enables me to facilitate parents and professionals in this community, and ultimately results in students achieving higher performances on all levels of education in School District 6.

As an administrator of the Committee on Preschool Special Education I ensure that children receive appropriate preschool services as mandated by their Individualized Education Programs. It is my duty to guide parents during the referral and evaluation process and ensure them of their due process rights. I then chair the committee of evaluators, special educators, general educators, preschool coordinators, and clinicians, to develop an appropriate Individual Education program for each preschooler in need. I present options according to State Education Department guidelines, and present the continuum of services in terms that parents can understand. I make sure parents and educators are comfortable with the final recommendation of the committee. I then contract the appropriate service providers, utilizing agencies, schools, and independent providers and deliver them in the least restrictive environment for each individual preschool student.

As a member of the Universal Preschool Advisory Board in District 6 I help to ensure that preschool programs are available to all four year olds in this district. I was one of the original members of the Advisory Board when we first implemented "UPK" classes in New York City. I helped select the first preschool sites in the district and continue to evaluate prospective sites and re-evaluate our current program. We now have classes in six public schools and ten private schools, and accommodate approximately eight hundred four year olds in half-day programs throughout the district. I consult with the UPK general education teachers to help identify and accommodate children with special needs in their classrooms.

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I am familiar with the broad spectrum of services available for preschool students in both the public and private domains, in special education and general education. Subsequently, children receive appropriate services in a timely fashion, according to State Education mandates, and in the least restrictive environment. Parents are comfortable with recommendations and services. Special education teachers and service providers have workable programs that can easily be implemented. General education teachers have the support they need to accommodate special education students in their preschool classrooms. I help this community educate young children early and successfully. The carry over we sees into school age programs is impressive.

Description of Qualitative Exemplary Practices

I was one of the first Preschool Special Education Administrators hired by New York City when the Committee on Preschool Special Education started in 18. In those early days, services were only provided to four year olds, and in self-contained classrooms, and only in private special education preschools. Through the years the school district's jurisdiction expanded to accommodate three and four year olds, not just five to twenty one year olds as in the past. And instead of placing children in segregated classrooms, in privately contracted schools, we allowed for related services, such as Speech/Language, Occupational, and Physical Therapies, and Counseling, to be provided in the regular preschool settings or even in the home. The continuum of services now also includes the Special Education Itinerant Teacher program that provides support in the regular classroom setting, with consultation for the regular classroom teacher, and direct assistance for the student within the class, to maintain that student in that general education class. Another addition to the continuum was the Special Class in the Integrated Setting, which allows for preschool students with disabilities to benefit from a special education teacher and staff, together with their non-handicapped peers, in the same structured classroom. This continuum of services reflects the consideration of the State Education Department mandate that services be delivered in the least restrictive environment. But it is how the CPSE Administrator carries out these mandates that ultimately decides whether children are actually receiving appropriate services in the least restrictive environment.

It is my obligation to inform parents and teachers, and administrators and directors of programs, and clinicians and service providers, of what options are available, according to this continuum of services, and to deliver them in the least restrictive environment. I was instrumental in initially working with the District Office in implementing the first integrated class on the preschool level in this district, which is at P.S. 1. And when parents of the children in preschool integrated classes and SEIT programs started to demand the same type of services when their children entered kindergarten, I helped the district office and CSE review teams in recommending and implementing integrated classes and consultant teacher programs on the school age level. So, we see that what started with preschool services transitioned into the elementary school age level programs. Empowered parents on the preschool level insist on similar services and patterns for success on the school age level.

When CPSE first started we had to classify preschool children with the same specific classifications used on the school age level. It was difficult to categorize, or label children, especially at such a young age. Now, we use one generic term, "preschool student with a disability," which is a less restrictive means of classifying educationally handicapped youngsters. I remember one particular case of a student with Down's syndrome. I directed the parent to look at different special education sites in order to place his son in an appropriate class. After looking at one particular site, the father called me and said, "I know my son is mentally retarded, but does he have to be in a class with stupid children?" I learned from this parent's words. His words opened my mind, and opened my heart. I learned that even children with severe disabilities are entitled to be schooled with non-handicapped peers, given the right support services. Eventually that child was mainstreamed into an integrated class setting. When he transitioned from the CPSE to the school age CSE, that father was well aware of his rights, knew what the continuum of services was, and insisted that his son receive appropriate services in the least restrictive environment just as he had on the preschool level.

It is my goal to inform other administrators and the general public of what services are available for preschool students, and to identify and service children as early as possible. I have done this by personally training new CPSE Administrators in New York City over the past ten years. I sat on the committee that developed the current Standard Operating Procedures Manual for New York City Board of Education. I consult on a daily basis with other administrators, and directors of both special education and general education preschool programs. I assist in the smooth transition of preschool students with disabilities into the school age programs by working with the CSE teams that evaluate and place children for kindergarten. I actively participate on the UPK Advisory board our community. I have run workshops at local preschools to inform parents and teachers about preschool services available in our community. I feel it is my duty in my roles as both special education administrator and general education UPK Advisory Board member to empower parents and professionals, and continually meet the needs of preschool students. Ultimately this empowerment is reflected in parents and professionals in the entire community, preschool and school age.

Description of Outcomes

When I first taught in NYC school over twenty years ago, I taught a self contained class of educationally handicapped kindergarten, first and second grade students. Most had never received preschool services of any kind, and most had been identified as needing special education services only after failing in the regular class placement, after they had started elementary school.

My goal as CPSE Administrator and as the Universal Preschool Advisory Board member is to make sure children are receiving appropriate preschool services, so that they will succeed in school early. Children who have problems educationally must be identified before they fail on the school age level. As an administrator in District 6, working with CPSE and UPK I can ensure for the early identification and delivery of services on the preschool level. Early identification will lead to greater success and less restrictive services on the school age level. Many students who receive preschool services are decertified before they even enter kindergarten. Therefore we see greater student performance for both general education and special education students in the upper grades.

Educational services can be viewed in the shape of a pyramid. The preschool services - general education in the form of the UPK classrooms and special education preschool services form the base of the pyramid. This component is the foundation for the upper grades, or the higher levels on the pyramid. Educational services, be it special education or general education, should be broad based and extensive. If we give broad based, enriched services and supports on the preschool level, the student will need fewer and less restrictive special education support services on the elementary level. Parents are more informed now regarding what their children need on the preschool level. They transition their children into the elementary school programs with the same expectations they had when their children received preschool services. Quality preschool programs through CPSE services and UPK programs will result in better-prepared students overall. If student outcomes are higher on the preschool level, they will subsequently be higher on the school age level.

As an active Universal Prekindergarten Advisory Board member and an Administrator for the Committee on Preschool Special Education in District 6 I do all I can to ensure quality services on the preschool level, which ultimately results in greater student performance on all levels of education.

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Reasonable working hours

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For nearly three years, one of the main activities of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) has been to conduct a campaign for "reasonable working hours". It commenced with a survey completed in October 1, which linked the sharp increase in working hours over the past two decades with stress-related illnesses and workplace accidents.

Apart from occasional media releases, the "campaign" consisted entirely of running a test case in the Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC), seeking the insertion of a "reasonable hours" clause in federal awards. Few workers were involved in any way. No mass meetings or industrial action were ever called. The ACTU's purpose was to bury the issue in the industrial court and head off any independent opposition and action by working people.

When the AIRC handed down its ruling at the end of last month, the result was predictable. It will do nothing to assist the millions of workers forced to work increasingly longer hours. Instead, the decision enshrines the present work regime, while creating the illusion that workers now have the right to refuse long overtime hours.

The court ruled that workers can refuse to work "excessive or unreasonable" overtime on a particular day on the grounds of family responsibilities or health and safety considerations. However, it neither defined what constitutes "excessive hours" nor placed a ceiling on the number of hours that employers can compel their staff to work. The ACTU did not seek such a definition nor insist on regulations that will restrict employers.

At the same time, the AIRC rejected out of hand the only specific claim put forward by the ACTU that workers be given two days off with pay after working "extreme hours," such as 48 hours per week for three months.

Nevertheless, ACTU president Sharon Burrow hailed the ruling as an "historic victory" that gave workers "empowerment and control" over their working lives.

Only those who are both distant from and indifferent to the enormous difficulties that plague the everyday lives of ordinary working people could make such a claim. Workers are unlikely to refuse to work overtime when they can be easily replaced from the existing massive pool of unemployed.

Nor can those who refuse to work "excessive hours" rely on any protection from the unions, which have agreed that the definition of "unreasonable" hours will be determined industry by industry "in accordance with their requirements".

Moreover, real wages have declined so far over the past two decades that many workers are now forced to work extraordinary amounts of overtime just to make ends met.

The director of Adelaide University's Centre for Labour Research, Dr Barbara Pocock, gave expert evidence in the case. Dr Pocock warned that the ruling "would not stop the trend towards longer hours".

Just how little Burrow's claim of worker empowerment corresponds to reality can be gauged from the comments from the federal government and major employers, who welcomed the ruling. Workplace Relations Minister Tony Abbott described the result as "fair", saying that the issue of working hours remained "in the hands of companies and employees in the workplace". Australian Industries Group chief executive Bob Herbert said little had changed as a result of the AIRC decision, because "these issues are mostly worked out at the workplace".

Long hours and ill-health

Research conducted by Iain Campbell of RMIT University, which was presented during the ACTU test case, showed that average working hours in Australia are now longer than most other industrialised countries and are moving toward top ranking, alongside the US and South Korea.

The average full-time working week increased by .7 hours between 18 and 000, a larger increase than other OECD countries. According to Campbell, "this amounts to over 1 million extra hours per week or the equivalent of 550,000 full-time jobs". From 18 to 000 this trend accelerated, adding 48 minutes to the average working week.

Between 185 and 00, the proportion of employees working 40-45 hours rose from .4 to 1. percent, while for 45-50 hours it increased from 17.8 to 6.1. The percentage working 50 hours or more rose from 10. to 17.4.

Data assembled by the ACTU revealed that the number working 60 hours or more increased from to over 7 percent between 180 and 16. The ACTU data also concluded that Australia has the highest rate of unpaid overtime among developed countries, with 5 percent of full-time employees not paid for an average of .7 hours a week each.

The precarious circumstances of young workers and those in casual employment make them most susceptible to employer pressure. A Young Christian Workers Association survey last year of 1,400 young casual workers aged 15 to 5 found that a third were forced to work overtime without pay.

A report commissioned by the ACTU showed that long hours dramatically worsen existing medical problems, including diabetes, epilepsy, hypertension, asthma and digestive problems. Working more than 55 hours a week doubles the risk of heart disease. Chronic fatigue associated with excessive hours has been linked to nervousness, anxiety, sexual problems and depression.

Nearly half (4 percent) of those interviewed stated that work arrangements contributed to ongoing health problems. Some 76 percent complained of stress-related problems, 7 percent of continual tiredness, 55 percent of headaches, while 51 percent suffered from depression. The health problems increased proportionally to the number of hours worked.

Excessive hours also caused safety problems. Over a quarter of interviewees reported that longer hours had contributed to accidents or near misses at work. The report concluded that 40 percent of work accidents may be due to human error caused by fatigue. Another survey estimated that 17 hours of sustained wakefulnessand such working hours are not uncommonis the equivalent to having an unsafe blood alcohol level of 0.05 percent.

The ACTU's role

In mounting its test case, the ACTU did everything possible to cover over the role that the unions have played in creating these conditions.

ACTU assistant secretary Richard Marles, who ran the ACTU's case, claimed that the ruling would "reverse an obnoxious trend in play for the last 0 years," during which "workers have lost control over their own lives as more and more time and energy was handed over to the boss with longer and longer hours and greater intensification of work".

Workers did not simply "hand over" their time and conditions to employers. Marles' reference to 0 years inadvertently points to the historical reversal in the social position of the working class that began with the election of the Labor government headed by former ACTU president Bob Hawke in 18.

Under Hawke's Prices and Incomes Accord, the ACTU collaborated with the government to fundamentally restructure workplace relations to meet the demands of globally mobile capital. Year after year, hard-won protective conditions and job security were traded off. Central to this process was the enforcement of "flexibility," particularly in working hours.

Even in dangerous industries such as underground mining, 1-hour shifts were imposed, the five-day working week was abolished and continuous, seven-day around-the-clock production was introduced. Penalty rates, which once acted as a limited deterrent to employers demanding excessive overtime, were either scrapped or severely cut back.

The record shows that the "obnoxious trend" of longer hours, with its escalating health and safety problems, and terrible impact on workers' family and social life, did not fall from the sky. It is part of the legacy of decades of policing by the unions, in the interests of employers.

· Americans are working longer hours than ever. Between 16-18 the average American working year increased by 5 hours. In the following decade Americans continued to work more, with total work-year hours rising by an additional week.

· Working hours have increased more substantially for families. The combined annual work hours of prime-aged dual-earner couples rose from ,850 in 171 to ,450 in 188, an increase of 600 hours. An analysis of the Current Population Survey data on time use also found that working hours have increased more substantially for parents, and in particular single and young parents

· Adults should be able to attain a decent standard of living for their families on a reasonable number of hours of paid work. With only 4 hours in a day, it is not surprising that working parents who are working more hours to support their families financially while continuing to care for their children and other relatives are experiencing significant time pressures.

Shorter working hours do not increase employment

Shorter working hours do not lead to higher employment or better health. This is the conclusion of a report from the National Institute for Working Life.

The report, written by Jonas Bergström and Sofia Olofsdotter, is a summary of results of research on working hours. It was commissioned to be used as a basis by a working hours committee appointed by the Swedish Government Offices.

The report starts out on the basis that there are two ways of implementing reduced working hours retaining the same salary for employees in practice an increase in the hourly rate of pay or reducing salary.

According to the report, in order for a reduction in working hours to provide higher employment, stringent restrictions are required to ensure that the hourly rate of pay does not increase. Another precondition is the availability of a suitable labour force. Otherwise labour costs will be too high.

However, the report states that in the longer term the effects of shorter working hours tend to be insignificant or negative, due to a drop in total production. As unemployment is falling rapidly in Sweden and the lack of labour in increasing, the authors of the report believe that shorter working hours would actually reduce employment.

The report goes on to say that, when it comes to health, a reduction in working hours would probably benefit certain small groups with high workloads, but would result in little difference for the majority of workers. The impact on state transfer payment systems such as national health insurance and invalidity pensions is also likely to be small.

Increased equality between men and women is often cited as a reason for reducing working hours, but according to the National Institute of Working Life report it would be more effective if women were to increase their working hours, so that they worked the same hours as men. Women's paid work affects their work in the home more than that of men women who work full-time spend much less time on housework than women who work part-time. The authors of the report argue that if men had shorter working hours, it is likely that housework would be more equally distributed, but if women increased their working hours, the effect on equality would be even greater - not because men would spend more time on housework, but because women would spend less time on it.

The report adds that reducing working hours could have a different impact if working hours were shortened through local agreements which take into account the production and organisation of individual workplaces.

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