Modern History, Russia, Russian Civil war 1918-1920 - By Mark bunkerhunter@yahoo.com.au

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Modern History Assessment

Russian Civil War 118-10

By Mark S, Australia, For lots more modern History assessments contact me at bunkerhunter@yahoo.com.au

A war to end all wars is a phrase generally reserved to describe World War one and the appalling conditions and horrific death toll that accompanied it. However, the Russian Civil War of 118-10 virtually crippled Russias Economy, its people and claimed thousands of lives. In effect the Russian Civil War can be compared to World War One, The War to end all Wars.

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Towards the end of 117, Russia had withdrawn from World War One and had made peace with Germany, through the Brest-Litovsk treaty. Although Peace came at immense price, the Russian Empire lost all of its western lands, comprising sixty-two million people, 7 percent of its farmland and 76 percent of its iron ore and coal supplies .

This loss of land and industry caused great contempt amongst the anti-Bolshevik and pro-Tsarists parties. Eventually, these groups began to rise up against the Bolsheviks. The first group to rise up against the Bolsheviks was a group of Czech prisoners of war, which took control of a town along the Trans-Siberian railway during May 118. When Bolshevik troops arrived to restore power, more train-loads of Czech prisoners of war came to join in the fight, by the end of 118 all towns along the railway and the railway itself were in the hands of the Czech prisoners of war now known as the Czech Legion .

In January 118, five months prior to the Russian Civil war, General Lavr Kornilov organised a volunteer army of anti-Bolshevik supporters. By the beginning of January 11, 8 months into the civil war, this army incorporated many other anti-Bolshevik parties, socialist revolutionaries and pro-Tsarist groups which now became to be known as the White Army.

Both the White Armies and Czech Legion never joined forces, but remained close allies. In November 118, the white army gained support from 00 000 soldiers from America, Britain, France and Japan. The American and British were mobilised in the White Sea area, while French and Japanese forces were mobilised in Vladivostok. The American forces would later also be mobilised in Vladivostok.

The main reason for allied intervention in the Russian Civil war was to preserve the Eastern Front in the War against Germany, but it was also an attempt to overthrow Bolshevikism. These Allied intervention forces would be withdrawn from Russia between March and October 11 .

To combat this tremendous threat, Vadimir Lenin appointed Leon Trotsky as Commissar for War. His first objective was to get troops into the new Russian army, the Red army, formed in January 118. He accomplished this by introducing conscription for all men aged eighteen and forty; his second objective was to get officers to lead the red army, his solution was to appoint former officers from the Tsarist Army who had recently returned from war. Any officer found rejecting the order to join the red army was taken hostage and put into prison. By March 11, The Red army had 000 officers to command the 0 000 men strong army.

To ensure no officers or troops of the Red army deserted the army or their post in late 118 Trotsky enforced strict orders of terror for anyone who deserted the red army, sold their uniform/equipment or harbored deserters. Anyone found guilty of these crimes was to be shot.

Another much feared element of The Red Terror was the Cheka also known as Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Sabotage and Criminal Offenses by Officials. The Cheka was responsible for dealing with anyone who supported/helped the white army or who fought for the White army. Cheka agents were responsible for torturing prisoners to extract confessions before executing them. Cheka units also wreaked havoc across the countryside, hanging, beating, shooting or burning anybody who fought or supported the White Army.

The Cheka is to punish and liquidate all attempts or actions connected with counter-revolution or sabotage, whatever their source, throughout Russia; to hand over for trial by a revolutionary tribunal all saboteurs and counter-revolutionaries, and to elaborate measures to combat them; and to carry out a preliminary investigation only in so far as was necessary for preventive purposes.

The movements of the Russian Civil war took many twists and turns in its two-year course. At the end of 118, anti-Bolshevik armies were advancing on Moscow; the Czech Legion had control of the Trans-Siberian railway in most towns along its route. Although the red army were mobilised in the Volga in July 118 and managed to recapture Kazan and Simbirsk from the White army in September 118 and Samara in October, in late October 118, The white army did make progress when General Denekin took control of the Kuban region and General Wrangel began to advance up the Volga. General Denekin would later advance up to a point 150kms from Moscow.

The main threat to the Bolshevik government came from General Yudenich . In October, 118 he captured Gatchina, only 50 kilometres from Petrograd. Leon Trotsky arrived to direct the defence of the capital. Red Army units were established amongst industrial workers and the rail network was used to bring troops from Moscow. Outnumbered, Yudenich ordered his men to retreat and headed for Estonia.

In 11, the white army began to lose the war. Alexander Kolchak captured Ufa and was posing a threat to Kazan and Samara. The Red Army led by General Frunze began to fight back. In November 11 the Red army entered Omsk, where Kolchak had proclaimed government; Kolchak then fled eastwards but he was caught by the Czechs who handed him over to the Bolsheviks. Kolchak was shot by firing squad on 7th February 10.

General Frunze went on to clear Turkestan of all anti-Bolshevik forces. In early 10 General Denikin and his army withdrew into Crimea. He made a brief stand at Rostov before again retreating to Novorossiysk on the Black Sea. Faced by troops led by Mikhail Tukhachevsky, Denikin was forced to leave Russia in April 10.

General Wrangel now took control of the White Army in the Crimea but he was unable to match General Frunze and the Red army. In November 10 the remaining members of his army left Russia thus ending the two-year civil war .

The Civil war not only took a toll on the Russian population, but also on the economy. During 118, at the height of the Russian Civil war, Vladmir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, took strict measures to organise food and industry in areas under Bolshevik control. All factories with under ten workers were nationalised, all workers were under government control, private trading was banned, money lost its value through inflation and food was strictly rationed.

This form of economy was later to be known as War Communism. This form of economy achieved one of its aims - it supplied the red army with food and weapons, although it failed in its other aims - the equal share of wealth throughout Russia. Since the government took all surplus food, farmers did not produce surplus food. This caused a food shortage in 10 and a famine in 11. War communism was finally disbanded and replaced by the new economic policy in March 11, three months after the civil war ended.

The peculiarity of war communism consisted in the fact that we really took from the peasants all their surpluses, and some times even what was not surplus, but part of what was necessary to feed the peasant... We took it for the most part on credit...

In the end, the Red army and the Bolsheviks won the Russian Civil war. It spelled the death knell for democracy and freedom, it was a decisive win for communism and repression. The red army won by Force and Brutality, with the help of a large army and the Red Terror (later to be known as the KGB). The white army and anti-Bolshevik forces didnt stand a chance. The win for Bolshevism and Communism ensured a reign of terror and horror that would last 0 years.

...those who believe that socialism will be built at a time of peace and tranquillity are profoundly mistaken it will everywhere be built at a time of disruption, at a time of famine.

Josh Broomman, Russia in war and revolution, Longman 0th century history series, New York 1, pp.

Donald W. Treadgold, Twentieth Century Russia, Westview Press, New York, 187.

Internet extract of pages 40-50 available on Professor Gerhard Rempels website

http//mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/russia/lectures/8civilwar.html

Anthony Wood, Russian Civil war, Internet Resource

http//www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RUScivilwar.htm

Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 6 Progress Publishers, Moscow 17, pp. 75

Jamie Simpson, Bruce Dennet, Problems and Issues in Modern History, Oxford University Press Melbourne 17, pp. 7-75

V Lenin, Unknown Source, 11, Internet rescource

http//flag.blackened.net/revolt/russia/lenin_quotes.html

V Lenin, Unknown Source, 11, Internet rescource

http//flag.blackened.net/revolt/russia/lenin_quotes.html

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Review of the Trade

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Naruto Review

Twelve years ago the 4th Leader of the Hidden Leaf Village sealed a nine-tailed demon fox inside the navel of a newborn child. To speak of this topic in the village was forbidden from that day on. This is the history behind the twelve year old, hyperactive ninja in training named Naruto! The series itself is about Naruto and his fellow classmates facing challenges to becoming high-ranking ninjas. Naruto strives towards becoming the 5th Hokage (leading ninja in this village) so that the villagers will acknowledge his existence. It also shows how Naruto and his partners grow through the battles and encounters they experience. Love, dedication, friendship, and courage are just a few of the themes shown throughout the anime. This anime has some comedy, which balances nicely with the other scenes. The techniques and fight scenes in this anime can be very intense and have a considerable amount of blood and minor swearing. The art style is also done pretty well. The background music is nothing to be thrilled over, but it fits the series well enough. The opening and ending songs are excellent though. Both fit the series well and present the series in a good way. Naruto ranks in at a because it is truly a good ninja anime. There are so few good ones out there and this one definitely ranks at the top. The only real problem with the series is that some fight scenes are drawn out with flashbacks. This can get a little irritating, but it is an enjoyable viewing experience over all. The characters are presented in a way that you get very attached and want to know what happened to them as the series progresses. Seeing Naruto mature makes the viewer almost feel enlightened themselves.

Enter The Matrix Review

I¡¦m a huge fan of the matrix trilogy. When I first heard that there was going to be a matrix game, I wasn¡¦t very exited about it because almost every other game based off a movie has been a total flop. Now that I have the game I think it is a very great game and it was definitely worth my money. If your still skeptical about buying this game check out my review below.

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Gameplay 10/10

Ok where do I start. The gameplay in this game is top notch, there are so many things you can do. Everything that you can do in the movies you can do in the game. You can run across walls, you can slow time down using bullet time(although its called focus in this game) you can shoot in slow motion while doing cartwheels, for the most part you can even dodge bullets¡Ksort of.Another nice thing about this game is that you can choose to play as either ghost or niobe, both of there moves are very similar but they do have some variation, alot of there levels are different also, with the expetion of a few levels that are the same for both characters. Anyway lets get down to it, this game has a fairly deep fighting system, you can choose either to take out enemies with the wide array of guns at your disposal, or you can go on close and use hand to hand combat to take them out. You can take out and put away your guns with a touch of a button, you also shoot with that same button. When you get in close to the enemy your character automatically switches to hand to hand combat. This game has a better fighting system then most fighting games I have played, its amazing. You punch by pressing triangle, kick by pressing Circle and block by pressing square the blocking animation¡¦s are really cool, they actually look realistic so the fights look real, you can combine these buttons for a multitude of devastating combos and attacks, you can also disarm enemies by pressing square, there are several different disarm moves you can do you can also do counter attacks by pressing the block button the exact second that another person is attacking you, these are really effective and they look really cool,counter attacks are a little tricky to pull off but they are worth it. These little things they added are really great and help to make the game more exciting a realistic.You can also utilize a different array of throws also by pressing the punch and kick buttons at the same time. This game is surprisingly challenging, although the challenge level is very enjoyable you must use all your different moves, in order not to get killed. This game does feature a few driving levels to but they are very annoying, so I¡¦m glad there aren¡¦t very many. The focus button is the key to winning this game, with it pressed you become stronger and faster(although you are moving in slow motion) while it is pressed you can cartwheel and do flips in order to dodge incoming bullets, and it is really effective I almost never get hit by bullets while doing this.There is so much more you can do in the game but if I put all of it in this review it would take to long to read it.

Story 8/10

The story is great, the story in this game relates to parts of the story in The Matrix Reloaded. It revolves around niobe and ghost, two of the characters that we didn¡¦t get to see much of in the movie the story is about everything that they did in the movie, this game is a great add on to the movies story it shows you everything that you didn¡¦t get to see in the movie. This game does feature extra hours of cinematic they filmed just for the game, some of the scenes actually come directly from the movies itself. Actually this game probobly has the most interesting story out of all the action games I have played

Graphics 7/10

I am very sorry to say that the graphics in this game aren¡¦t too great , although the characters models are pretty good and the environments were taken straight out of the movie and they look great, the wheels on the cars really annoy me, they look like hexagons is it really that hard to make circular wheels in a game, how hard can that be. The guns look really good also as do the bullets when they are whizzing by you in slow motion they even have that trail effect in the movies although it isn¡¦t as real looking it looks great none the less, and the moves are as fluid as can be expected, but sometime when you hit someone part of the body goes into a wall, its little stuff like that brings this games score down. Also there have been a lot of reported glitches, like freezing, and echo¡¦s in the voices in the cinematic and in some parts even the screen turning all black, I have only experienced one of these glitches and it was very minor, but it does ruin the game a little bit.

Sound /10

The sound is wonderful, when hitting or punching someone it makes that whoosh sound like in the movies, and when you are shooting or getting shot at in slow motion you can hear the bullets going past you. Every gun sounds different also this really helps to add realism to the game. When your driving the car in the very few driving levels it sounds just like a real car. Most of the tunes comes from the movie and they are really great they give you that same adrenaline rush you get when you watch the movie.

Replayability 7/10

This game does feature some nice unlockables and add ons to keep it going for you after you beat it with both characters. The hacking feature was a great idea, and even though there are only 40 hacks that are known as of right now, the producers have promised us that there are actually over 500 hacks, which is amazing, you can hack fmv movies and watch them, character models, guns. You can even hack into the matrix and drop weapons in levels and even put cheats in. Even the story is good enough for a few replays. And the challenge of trying to kill agent smith and his multiple clones is always a good thing.

In closing, I want to say that every matrix fan should have this game most definitely this game is also great for videogame fans everywhere this game is great, although be careful a lot of people have reported multiple glitches(which i stated earlier in my review) with there games, all of them from the ps version which I have and have only experienced minor glitches.

Mazda Rx-8 Review

Mazda revives the rotary engine in a new sports car the company promotes as the spiritual successor to its famous RX-7. The RX-7, last offered in 15, was a -seat, -dr model, but the RX-8 is a unique 4-seat, 4-dr sports car. Its about 5 inches longer than the -seat Nissan 50Z, and features a -passenger rear seat and two small, rear-hinged doors behind the front doors. The rear doors do not open or close independently of the fronts. Conventional engines use pistons that move up and down in cylinders. The rotary engine uses triangular-shaped rotors that spin inside oval-shaped housings. The RX-8s twin-rotor engine displaces 1. liters and has 07 hp when teamed with a 4-speed automatic transmission, 47 hp when linked with a 6-speed manual. The automatic includes a manual-shift mode using either steering-wheel paddles or the shift lever. Manual-transmission RX-8s come with 18-inch wheels, stiffer sport-tuned suspension, and a limited-slip differential. Optional for automatic-transmission models is a Sport Package, which replaces their standard 16-inch wheels with 18s and adds the stiffer suspension. Antilock 4-wheel disc brakes, front side airbags, and head-protecting curtain side airbags are standard on all RX-8s. Options include leather upholstery, heated seats and mirrors, antiskid system with traction control, and navigation system. This evaluation is based on preview test drives. RX-8 is just hitting the streets, so only detail changes should occur in the next - years. But remembering that the last RX-7 had twin turbochargers, dont be surprised if RX-8 goes turbo at some point. This is strictly a guess, but we understand the new Renesis rotary is amenable to turbocharging. All that needs to happen is for parent Ford to allocate funds and for Mazda to deliver a turbo option at a reasonable price, admittedly not an easy task. Well go out on another limb and predict that Mazda will eventually offer a heftier automatic transmission, perhaps a 5- or 6-speed unit, so buyers who choose that option will get the same power as the shift-it-yourself crowd.

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Drosophila Melangaster

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Drosophila Melangaster, more commonly known as the fruit fly, is the basis of this lab activity. In the process of this lab, we saw a total of three generations of flies. First, we start out with a parent generation of one male and one female. After identifying the traits of each homozygous parent, we removed them from the vial, in order to keep them from reproducing with their children. Next, because of the breeding of these two flies, we had offspring, whose traits we then mapped after they had developed from the pupa. To do this, we had to keep the flies under the microscope without them flying away. We used Fly Nap , a product designed to temporarily paralyze the flies, just long enough for us to determine the gender and genotype of each fly. After inspecting the flies, they were killed, either by releasing them outside or placing them into a jar of liquid. After the F1 generation was developed, counted, an analyzed, we were to remove to or three flies from that generation and place them in a new vial. This new generation that is to be produced from the F1 generation is the F generation, the grandsons and granddaughters of the original parent generation. This experiment was designed to examine the parent generation and its offspring, and see how genotypes, as well as phenotype of sex-liked traits are passed through generations.

The life cycle of a fruit fly, also known as complete metamorphosis (Figure A), is divided into four stages, egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Drosophila Melangaster will produce new adults in two weeks, eight days in the egg and larval stages, and six days in the pupal stage. Twenty-four hours after the egg is laid, the larval hatches. The larva has two molting (shedding) periods; during which the cuticle (outer portion of the exoskeleton), mouth, hooks and spiracles are shed. This larva is called an instar during the periods of growth before and after molting. Thus, the fruit fly has three instars. The puparium develops from the third instar, which becomes which becomes hard texture and dark in color. Upon completion of metamorphosis, the adult forces its way through the operculum (end) of the puparium. Initially the fruit fly appears light in color with a long abdomen and unexpanded wings. In just a few hours the fly gets darker in color, rounder in the abdomen and extends its wings. A female fruit fly can store sperm after a single insemination ad use it for many reproductions. The sperm the female obtains is used randomly (not in the order they were obtained) to fertilize the eggs as they were laid. This process, complete metamorphosis, is different than incomplete because of the resting stages during complete metamorphosis. For example, caterpillars are transformed in a cocoon, and fruit flies change in the pupa stage. Also, in incomplete metamorphosis, there is a gradual change in appearance such as the wing pads grow longer with each molt, and eventually into wings in the adult. In incomplete metamorphosis the immature forms are called nymphs, which generally have the same food source as the adult.

The process of anesthetizing flies uses a product known as Fly Nap . This product allows us to look at flies under the microscope without them flying away. In order to correctly utilize the Fly Nap , place some on one side of a sponge stopper. Then, gently tap the vial in which the desired flies are in, which should knock them to the bottom. Quickly remove the stopper, then place an inverted vial on top of that vial without allowing any flies to escape, the flies should rise into the inverted vial. Next, promptly place the stopper that has the Fly Nap on it into the vial containing the flies. In about one minute the flies should be temporarily paralyzed; this will allow you to look at the flies under the microscope without them flying away.

Distinguishing sex between the male and the female can be noticed when looking under a microscope. The most easily identifiable difference is the coloring of the rear. The male has heavy pigmentation on the entire posterior part of the abdomen, and has two bands frontal, while the female has five bands of color along the entire abdomen. The problem with this type of distinction is the inability to see color in newly emerged flies, however, in mature flies, the difference is clear. Another difference is the shape of the posterior tip (Figure C). In females, the tip is slightly pointed, while in males the tip is rounded. Finally, the males have a pair of sex combs (Figure B), located on each leg, which are used to grasp onto females during intercourse.

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In our experiment, there were three traits that could vary in the flies sex, type of wing, and the eye color. For this lab, the following labels were used to show the genotype behind each phenotype

In sexual reproduction, the genes that are produced by the male are the genes that determine the gender of the offspring. The male can generate either a XY (male), or XX (female) sperm. If the Y chromosome is combined with the X chromosome of the female, the offspring will be male. However, if the male provides the female with his X chromosome, the offspring will be female.

Certain physical traits, or phenotype match up with certain genotypes. In this lab, long wings are dominant, which means that if a L gene is passed from either parent to the offspring, that particular child will have long wings. If both parents transmit the gene, the trait the offspring will be known as a homozygous for that trait (LL). However, if only one parent passes on the gene, the child is known as a hybrid, or heterozygous (Ll).

Also, in order for a child to have short wings, the parents must both give the recessive trait of short wings to the child, that making the child homozygous (ll) for that characteristic.

A mainly significant type of genetic linkage has to do with the X and Y sex chromosomes. These not only carry the genes that determine male and female traits but also those for some other characteristics as well. Genes that are carried by either sex chromosome are said to be sex linked. A large part of sex linkage has to do with the fact that a single chromosome determines several genes. This is because the X chromosome is longer and straighter than the Y chromosome (Figure D), and occasionally has genes that are not always on the Y chromosome. Because the blending of these chromosomes decides the gender of the offspring, in addition to the eyes, the color of the eyes is identified as a sex-linked trait. For instance, if a male received an X chromosome containing the gene for white eyes, he will have white eyes, because the Y chromosome does not carry that trait and will then have no effect on that specific characteristic. On the other hand, if a fly is female, both X chromosomes must carry the white-eye gene in order for her to have white eyes. That female will only be that carrier of that gene, and pass that gene on to their offspring. This relationship linking the gender along with attributes of the fly is recognized as sex linkage.For this experiment, it was known that the traits for the parent (P) generation were homozygous. Having that information, we were able to identify our parent generation's genotype, after examining their phenotype. Our males were short winged, red eyed (XYll), while our females were long winged, red eyed (XXLL). Using this data, we were able to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 generation using a Punnet square (Figure E). By studying this information, it is observed that our estimation is that half of the F1 generation will be males with red eyes and heterozygous long wings, while the other half will be females with red eyes and heterozygous long wings.

By comparing our approximation with our actual F1 generation, we found out that our presumption was almost identical to the actual offspring (Figure F).

Then, we used the genotypes of our F1 generation to predict their children, or the F generation (Figure G).

Using the Punnet square above, we made the following predictions for the genotypes of the F generation

Then, using the genotypes, we predicted the phenotypes

Unfortunately, we were not able to test our predictions; the F fruit flies did not hatch in time for us to be able to include them in our report.

While working on this lab, there was a large margin for error and it is quite possible that mistakes occurred. First of all, when transporting flies from one container to another either when examining them or otherwise, it is probable that some flies flew out of the vial. This problem could change the number of parents and also change the results of the following generation. Also, when breeding the flies, it is likely that some flies from the earlier generation could have stayed in the vial, and have not been removed. This would cause the parents to mate with their children, and this inbreeding could modify the expected results. Another problem that existed was the paralyzed flies falling back into the food after being examined under the microscope. This would lead to a death of that fly and change the counting of that generation and also the following generation. Another obvious problem could be the miscounting of male and female flies by mixing them up, or just not counting certain flies at all. Either one of these problems or a mixture of these troubles could considerably change the outcome of the lab. - Day 1 My partner and I practiced examining the flies, as well as distinguishing between the males and the females. Also, proper techniques on how to use Fly Nap as well as how to use the soft bristled brush to manipulate the flies under the microscope were explored.

- Day We received the parent generation and examined the phenotype plus the genotype for future mapping. We were told that each fly was homozygous for the purpose of Punnet squares. We removed the parents from the vial and observed the developing larva.

- Day We both counted the flies of each sex and phenotype as well as compared that count to our predictions.

- Day 4 My partner and I continued to count the F1 generation and added the number of the rest of the flies to the previously counted number.

- Day 5 The final counting of the F1 generation was complete, the phenotypes and genotypes of those flies were compared to our predictions. We also placed two adults from each sex into a new vial to prepare for the second generation (F).

- Day 6, 7, 8 Digital pictures of us were taken. This report was written. Unfortunately, The F generation did not hatch in time for us to compare them to our predictions.

References

- http//www.flushing.k1.mi.us/srhigh/tippettl/genetics/ins.html

- http//bioweb.uwlax.edu/bionet/Genetics/Fly_Genetics/fly_genetics.html

- http//www.central.edu/homepages/liedlb/genetics/FlyInfo.PDF

- http//www.accessexcellence.com/AE/AEPC/WWC/14/life_cycle.html

- Carolina Drosophila Manual

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Truth about Aboriginal Art

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Regular row, or fight between themselves is a sketch by William Thomas made in 1840. William Thomas was one of four Assistant Protectorates of the Aborigines in the Port Phillip district. The sketch depicts a group or tribe of Aborigines in combat with each other. It is set in the bush in the Port Phillip district. The main focus of the sketch is two Aboriginal brothers threatening each other with traditional weapons, such as boomerangs, shields and whacking sticks. They are surrounded by other Aboriginal men holding similar weapons and also spears. There is no evidence of any Europeans or signs of colonization. The sketch portrays the Aborigines in there raw primitive naked form.

The caption below the picture informs the viewer that William Thomas nicknamed the two men, who are said to be brothers, De Villiers after C. L. J. De Villiers, a young South African bushman who was an officer in charge of rules and regulations for the conduct of the Native Police.

At the time of this sketch Port Phillip was going through the initial stages of the creation of Australias first Native Police Force. The Government back in Britain had opposed the recruitment of Aborigines as police constables. In the early 180s G.A Robinson set up the first native settlements at Flinders Island. Robinson had been appointed Chief Protector by Lord Glenelg following deep concern by church groups regarding the just treatment for Aborigines in the area. Visits from distinguished leaders such as Alexander Maconochie, a Royal Navy officer who acted as secretary to Sir John Franklin, newly appointed Governor of Van Diemens Land, were frequent. Maconochie was greatly impressed by the efficiency of the settlement especially the native law enforcers, who were given restricted yet sufficient powers to control members of their own tribe. Moconochie recommended an experiment whereby local Aborigines would be employed as a Native Police force under white officers. De Villiers was appointed as officer in charge, laying down special regulations for conduct of the Native Police.

The sketch by Thomas promotes a view of Aborigines as primitive people in need of proper food, clothing as well as spiritual direction. The sketch represents a dispute that has erupted into a fight in a native settlement and the natives surrounding the two men or brothers supposedly are native law enforcers of this particular settlement. Thomas knew the Aboriginal people well and said that gatherings between tribes were usually peaceful and if there was any quarreling or fighting it would be settled quickly and followed by a Corroboree.

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Thomas was a high minded Wesleyan ex-schoolmaster, who held the naïve delusion that if the white man wore on his face a smile as a symbol of the love of Christ in his heart for the black man, if he used loving kindness and got the Blackman to read the bible, all would be well. Thomas saw Aborigines as individuals and enjoyed their wit and humour and believed that they needed someone to stand up for them. This was in contrast to many white settlers who saw the Aborigines as a problem.

This sketch was Thomass way of insisting that with some spiritual direction, clothes and education these primitive simple people could fill out the ranks of police scattered thinly across large areas of the continent. They would become the white mans economical servants and in theory this would improve the relationship between Aborigines and white people. Thomas uses the sketch to promote the idea that Aborigines are able to sort out their own disputes effectively and it thus adds support to the formation of the Native Police.

Although many groups in the Port Philip District agreed with Thomass view, there were also a large number who didnt. Back in England at this time the House of Commons were opposed to the recruitment of Aborigines as police constables, mainly because it feared the tendency of natives to take advantage of their new status and possession of firearms to repay tribal scores.

Another important group in the colony who disagreed with the scheme of Native Police were the squatters. The squatters believed these native settlements would take up precious land that could be used for farming instead.

The watercolor painting done in 188 by William Anderson Corthorne shows mounted over-Landers in battle against an enormous army of Aborigines at a river in the Port Phillip District. This painting exaggerates the threat of the natives to the white people and suggests that these natives were savage and if given the power of a firearm could fight back against the whites. It was images such as these that increased the white peoples fears of Aborigines and produced groups who were against the establishment of the Native Police.

After many attempts to build a Native Police Force in the late 180s, a native Village in Narre Warren led by Captain Lonsdale who employed De Villiers as an officer in charge of the native police, was established. De Villiers would often use bad language towards the Aboriginal police, drink heavily and encourage children to leave the mission. It is for this reason that Thomas nicknamed the two Aboriginal brothers De Villiers which was a direct attack against him, because De Villiers started a dispute as well as caused distress within the settlement, which is exactly what the two aboriginal brothers are depicted as doing.

After the resignation of De Villiers and the new allocation of the settlement the Native Police force was finally established in the mid 1840s. Thomas had achieved his goal of creating Australias first group of Native Police .

Thomas saw the Aboriginals as individuals. He enjoyed their wit and humour and continually battled with the Government for financial assistance.

Thomas was one of four Assistant Protectors of the Aborigines who took up their duties in the Port Philip colony in 18. He was responsible for the Central Protectorate District, which included the Woiwarung (Yarra) and Bunurong (coastal Port Philip and the western part) tribes.

As Thomas was entering the Port Philip Colony in 180 G.A Robinson the founder of these Aboriginal settlements had started one at Flinders Island. Alexander Maconochie, a Royal Navy officer who acted as private secretary to Sir John Franklin, newly appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemens land visited the settlement and was extremely impressed with the use of selected Aborigines as constables to control members of their own tribe. In 187 Maconochie wrote separate reports to Franklin, Governor Bourke and Lord Glenelg, suggesting that the settlement of Port Philip provided on opportunity for experimenting with the employment of local Aborigines as a Native Police Force, under white officers, possessing restricted but sufficient powers to control regions remote from Melbourne.

Maconochie was warmly supported by Sir J.Franklin and G.K Holden, private secretary to Sir R.Bourke, largely because of the apparent civilizing possibilities of the scheme.

Throughout the colony many leaders such as Captain Lonsdale, the man in charge of recruiting the natives, thought having natives as constables with restricted powers was practical as well as economical. This was because Aborigines had been found so useful as trackers of runaway convicts, and in some other quasi-police roles, that governments were prone to favour the employment of such economical servants, if only to fill out the ranks of police scattered thinly across large areas of the continent.

However back in England the House of Commons were opposed to the recruitment of Aborigines as police constables, mainly because it feared the tendency of natives to take advantage of their new status and possession of firearms to repay tribal scores.

Thomass sketch is suggesting that these un-educated people need to be cared for and guided, therefore the need for native police was mandatory. The constables could put an end to these inter-tribal disputes that erupt into battle, in this case between two brothers.

This sketch was a direct attack against the South African bushman De Villiers. On September 187 Captain Lonsdale recruited a force of natives under the command of the whites. The next month he appointed De Villiers as an officer in charge, laying down special regulations for conduct of native police.

In November De Villiers took his men to the spot allocated for the native police village at Narre Warren near Dandenong. A bitter feud between De Villiers and missionary George Langhorne erupted in December 187. According to Langhornes complaints, De Villiers ridiculed his efforts at the mission, used bad language to Aborigines, drank heavily, and encouraged children to leave the Mission. After much debate and investigation de Villiers resigned. By September 188 Lonsdale re-appointed De Villiers to command the native police, and to base them in a paddock adjoining Lonsdales residence, where hey would be under his ever-watchful eye. Further complaints against De Villiers followed, mainly from George Smith. By January 18 Lonsdale found De Villiers not so attentive and in a month De Villiers resigned for a second and final time, to take up inn keeping and wool growing along the Dandenong road.

Thomas gives the two Aboriginal men fighting, the nicknames De Villiers because De Villiers caused so much dispute and distress within the native settlement. Thomas, a Wesleyan by conviction, and a man who longed to tell the black man that Jesus was keeping a place for him in the sky, for he contained in his person childlike simplicity of manners with great goodness of heart, believed that for the whites to live and grow with each other men like De Villiers must be excluded.

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Many philosophers in the Medieval period aimed to reconcile theistic belief with pagan philosophy. Describe and then critically assess how successful you consider such attempts to be.

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"Knowing what a thing is" and "knowing that a thing exists" are fundamentally distinct truths (Exodus 14).

Introduction

Many philosophers believe that first century Christianity and the New Testament were heavily influenced by pagan philosophical systems. Nearly all of the medieval thinkers, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim were pre-occupied with some version of the attempt to amalgamate philosophy with religion. For example Philo Judaeus (Philo of Alexandria) (0 B.C.E.-50 C.E.) was an Alexandrian Jewish philosopher who tried to integrate Greek philosophy with Judaism by means of an mythical interpretation of the scripture. According to Philo, the personal God of scripture is identical with the Form of the Good in Plato. Accessed http//www.philosophypages.com/ph/plat.htm

As the concept and practice of mysticism developed through the early centuries of church history, it took on a very different form in the West than it did in the East. While Eastern orthodoxy focused on the divinization of man and the spread of the holy spirit within the believer's soul (as cited "Mystical Forms in Eastern Orthodoxy", Affirmation & Critique. Vol. III, No. 4 October 18) a different type of mysticism emerged in the West in which Greek philosophy was integrated into selected theistic ideas. Shortly after the death and resurrection of Christ, some in the ancient world who were philosophers also became Christians, while others who were Christians would eventually become philosophers. Already by the second century an attempt to reconcile Christian faith and pre-Christian learning had been undertaken. Church leaders such as Justin Martyr (executed in Rome, 165), Origen and Gregory of Nyssa (ordained Bishop of Nyssa, 7) are examples of prominent thinkers who tried to understand the relationship between Christian enlightenment and Greek philosophy. They then tried to articulate this relationship into a unified concept.

Buy cheap Many philosophers in the Medieval period aimed to reconcile theistic belief with pagan philosophy. Describe and then critically assess how successful you consider such attempts to be. term paper

They argue that the Christian Scripture, offered a rational understanding of the nature of divinity, the meaning of history, and the end of humanity in a way, which exceeded any previous natural philosophy. Since the beginning of the Christian era some have been convinced that Christianity answers questions raised by reason, but more comprehensively than philosophy has been able to. However, it was during the Middle Ages, in the thirteenth century, in the latin-speaking West that Christian philosophy found its most complete enunciation.

Regarding the relationship between faith and reason in the Middle Ages, medieval philosophers did not believe that you could start from belief and then somehow arrive at knowledge. On the contrary, none taught that one could begin at knowledge and end at faith. No theologian seriously considered that there was such a thing as Christian reason or a mystical reason. This doesn't mean that medieval theologians did not think that man could reason with out the divine intervention of God but rather that God gave to all people the natural capability of acquiring a true, although limited, knowledge of the first principles and causes of things.

The medievals argued in accord with the psalmist and the apostle Paul that the existence of God ought to be comprehensible by the powers of the natural intellect alone (cf. Pss. 14, 1; Rom. 10).

Augustine of Hippo (54-40), was the first great medieval philosopher and he was a follower of Manichaeanism who then converted to Christianity. Augustine developed a system of thought that incorporated Neoplatonic elements through which later amendments and elaborations, eventually became the authoritative doctrine of Christianity. He argued that religious faith and philosophical understanding should complement one another rather than become enemies of one another. After his conversion from Manicheism to Neoplatonism, Augustine learned to draw a distinction between the material world and the intelligible world. The former is sense-perceptible, unsteady and perishable, whereas the latter is intellectually apprehendable, immutable and eternal.

In this essay, I will attempt to defend the possibility of a distinctively Christian practice of philosophy in which faith and reason are united. First, I present the rational method introduced and developed by Greek philosophers, and the distinction between philosophy and theology. Next, I consider some objections to a synthesis of faith and reason. Third, I note some historical precedents to a medieval Christian synthesis, beginning with the early church. Finally, I argue for the coherence of the idea of a distinctively Christian practice of philosophy, taking as my model the integration envisioned by the medieval theologian St. Thomas Aquinas (15-175)

Augustine (54-40) provided a philosophical basis for faith in Western Christianity. God was regarded as eternal, unchangeable,. omniscient, omnipotent, a being of supreme goodness, supreme love, and supreme beauty, and the Creator of the universe.

In contrast with Plato, who regarded the world of Ideas as independent in itself, Augustine held that Ideas exist within the mind of God, and stated that everything was created with Ideas as the originals. In opposition to Neoplatonism, which held that the world necessarily originated from God, Augustine advocated creation theory, saying that God freely created the world from nothing, not using any material. Then, why is the human being sinful? For Augustine, the reason is that Adam, the first human ancestor, misused freedom and betrayed God. Fallen people can be saved only through Gods grace. Augustine said that faith in God, hope for salvation, and love for God and ones neighbors are the way to true happiness, and recommended the three virtues of faith, hope, and love.

Firstly, it is claimed that elements of Platos philosophy appear in the New Testament; secondly the New Testament reflects the influence of Stoicism; and thirdly the ancient Jewish philosopher Philo was a source of St Johns use of the Greek word logos as a description of Jesus. In this essay I will attempt to argue for each of these claims and analyze and critically assess each one in turn.

When trying to determine whether Christianity of the first century A.D. borrowed any of its essential beliefs from the pagan philosophical systems of that time; one must look at whether first century Christianity was reflected in the pages of the New Testament. Is Christianity a religion; which fused elements of differing belief systems?

Prior to the introduction of Aristotle's texts into western Europe, there existed no definitive demarcation between the realms of faith and reason in Latin Christian theology. St. Anselm (10-110) was the most prominent Christian theologian-philosopher of the twelfth century. His understanding of faith and reason represents an alternative to St. Thomas Aquinas's division of the relationship between the two realms of knowledge. See G. R. Evans' study, Anselm and Talking about God (Oxford Clarendon Press, 178).

But it is Plato who utilizes this kind of religious tradition in such a way that it makes its greatest contribution to philosophy. In many places, for example in the myth of the Phaedrus, he presents a similar view of the souls nature, its origin and its destiny, but always carefully adapted to serve his own purposes. Man cannot be looked on in the mechanistic way of the atomists, but must be thought to possess within himself a principle of human personality which is more truly himself than the body is.

From the time of Plato and Aristotle (84- B.C.) to the Neoplatonists, to Jewish and Muslim philosophers of the tenth and eleventh centuries, there has existed a strong belief within Western philosophy that the existence of a single God is provable by rational means. "For those who lived this tradition, denying the existence of God shows itself to be irrational, a sign of an intellectual and moral deficiency and an offense against reason. Hence in Psalm 14 it is, finally, only the "fool" who can utter in his heart "there is no God." All this is to say that for the medieval theologians the existence of God was not an article of faith but of rational demonstration".

Neoplatonism

Greek philosophy continued into the Roman period, which followed the Hellenistic period. The culmination of the philosophy of the Hellenistic-Roman period was Neoplatonism, a philosophical viewpoint whose most eminent proponent was Plotinus (A. D. 05-70). Neoplatonism was a derivative of ancient Platonic philosophy, it was popular from the third through to the sixth centuries and came in two forms, Hellenic and Christian. The main sources of Christian Neoplatonism consisted of the dialogues of Plato, the writings of Aristotle and the Bible. It differs from Hellenic Platonism because of it's religious orientation.

In the past, Greek philosophy had suggested a dualism that regarded God and matter as conflicting with each other. In contrast, Plotinus advocated monism, claiming that God is everything. "The human soul flows out into the sensual material world, and at the same time seeks to return to nous (reason) and to God".

Basically people should not be governed by material things and their souls should rise to the level of understanding and perceiving God and as a result of this perception, become united with Him. Such an achievement was regarded as the supreme virtue. Plotinus said that the human being becomes completely united with God in ecstasy, which he regarded as the highest state of mind.

Hellenistic philosophy culminated with Plotinus and Neoplatonism had a great impact on Christian philosophy, which was to emerge next.

Please note that this sample paper on Many philosophers in the Medieval period aimed to reconcile theistic belief with pagan philosophy. Describe and then critically assess how successful you consider such attempts to be. is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Many philosophers in the Medieval period aimed to reconcile theistic belief with pagan philosophy. Describe and then critically assess how successful you consider such attempts to be., we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Many philosophers in the Medieval period aimed to reconcile theistic belief with pagan philosophy. Describe and then critically assess how successful you consider such attempts to be. will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Trap-Ease

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Introduction

Trap-Ease is new product designed to remedy household mouse problems. Martha House, president, is the only sales person as well as being in charge of all marketing. The product has won awards including first place in the National Hardware Show. It has also appeared in an article in Canadian Business and on the MarketPlace television show.

The product itself seemed to be very "simple yet clever device" . However initial sales and revenues were extremely below expectations. This can be attributed to a variety of problems that Trap-Ease has. These will all be explained in the following pages. As well as recommendations will be made in order to rectify the situation.

Strengths

Trap-Ease has a great number of advantages over its competition. It has a variety of assets which are fundamental to its survival in its market.

The Trap-Ease has won awards including the National Hardware Show in Toronto. It has been featured in Canadian National, appeared on the MarketPlace television show and was also reported on in other trade publications. Trap-Ease has been distinguished in these reports from every other product in its class. Trap-Ease is thought to be an innovative new product.

Trap-Ease is a very simple idea that consumers would respond to. The mouse climbs through the tube which tips over and traps it. It provides a more humane way of trapping mice. The mouse can either be let go somewhere else or left in the trap to suffocate. Other devices are very painful for the mice and sometimes extremely cruel. There is no mess to clean up after when using Trap-Ease, the customer can simply dispose of the trap entirely or re-use it.

Trap-Ease is a very small business just starting out. Many people rather deal with smaller companies, as it can be more personal. The owner can deal with customers more intimately.

Weaknesses

There are many various items that plague the Trap-Ease business. A too limited target market, not enough advertisement and overpricing were among the most prominent.

Housewives were the main target market for the Trap-Ease product, however more and more they are leaving the home life and going back to work. Therefore Trap-Ease was targeting a shrinking market. Furthermore, "there is not much demand in the middle income and upper social class for a mouse trap." This current target market is not currently in demand of mousetraps. The research done in this domain was only between males and females; no additional studies were done to identify other target markets.

There is no clear mission statement to differentiate Trap-Ease from its competitors. Without a mission statement they are also not able to place themselves in the minds of their customers. Consumers are not exactly sure what the purpose of the product is. This was the case as people were buying the trap as a novelty item and conversation piece instead of its desired purpose. If a mission statement had been made clear than the consumers would have only had mousetrap in their minds, not just a toy.

The customers are not repeat buying the product, which can cause problems to the sales. This could be due to the fact that the product is inefficient in some way. The material used to create the product could be deficient. The method of the trap may also not be effective or providing to the needs of its consumers. The consumers could also be reusing the product and therefore do not need to buy anymore.

There is also the problem of pricing. Trap-Ease is almost five times more expensive than its competitors. The other products have been around much longer and have developed loyal consumers. Consumers might be hesitant to try a new product when the one they have been using has always worked, especially when it is more expensive. The target market was housewives who generally do not pay premium-price for things they can get for cheaper.

Advertising is also a huge problem for Trap-Ease. There is definitely not enough of it being done. There was a reliance on the trade shows as advertising, however the target market did not attend these shows, nor read the magazines in which Trap-Ease was featured. There are also not enough people in the marketing department of this company. Martha House cannot be in charge of all marketing and be the only salesperson. A company needs a team of people in order to get the job done.

The budget has not been carefully planned out; money has not been assigned to the right areas. There is too much focus on trade shows and traveling and not enough focus on advertising. Martha House also overestimated the amount of sales that were to occur during the first year. This has caused the a serious problem for revenues as she has already assigned where these profits should be going.

Opportunities

Competition devices, such as rodenticides, are unsafe, and federal law have prohibited their use in areas where food is being prepared. Trap-Ease could therefore be introduced in the food industry market. It offers a clean and humane way to get rid of mice. Other businesses that need sanitary workspaces could also be targeted restaurants, factories, hospitals, schools, nursing homes, daycare centers, etc.

People are beginning to become more environmentally friendly. They have started living their lives while being more in touch with nature. Animal cruelty is thought of as being extremely appalling. This movement against hurting animals is important to Trap-Ease as it offers a more civilized way to rid households and businesses of their mouse problems. Instead of killing them a mouse can be trapped inside the tube and then brought someplace else to be released.

Threats

Trap-Ease has many threats to its business. There is a variety of competition out there for Trap-Ease. There are other forms of traps, ultrasound machines, poisons and exterminators. There are also internal problems which could threaten the company's success.

There are competitors in the mousetrap business with cheaper mousetraps in which some customers could already be loyal to. Their traps are small, reliable and less expensive. Snap traps were probably the first ones developed, people use them because they get the job done. Multicatch traps can repeatedly catch mice and are therefore reusable. There are also single-catch live traps that can trap the mice while keeping it alive. There are those that can catch more than one mouse at a time.

There are also electronic mousetraps that are designed to kill mice very quickly. The mouse steps on the device and are zapped and killed. They do not require any sort of bait.

Poisons, such as rodenticides, are also effective in the elimination of mice. The mice eat the poison and eventually die. Glue boards are usually used in combination with poisons so that the mice do not run away.

An ultrasonic device can be used to keep mice away. A high-pitched noise is projected that is irritable to the mice.

Trap-Ease also has a budgetary problem, which is a huge threat to them being successful. Martha House has overestimated the amount of traps that were going to be sold. She has not put the money in the right places in order to have a successful business.

Recommendations

Trap-Ease needs to resolve the many challenges it is faced with if it would like to have a successful business. The following are suggestions to initiate this change.

The target market needs to be expanded. There should be more market segments, which include businesses such as factories, manufacturers, restaurants, and other businesses that need safe, clean, and effective mousetraps.

A clear mission statement is essential when presenting a new product to an existing market. The consumers need to know what separates this product from the others. They also must understand what exactly this product is for. There cannot be any confusion about the product. As an example the mission statement could be "An easy, safe, clean solution to your pest control problems with the best quality at the lowest possible price."

In order to increase repeat buying of the product it must be made less durable so that it is more disposable. Cheaper materials could be used, which would also decrease the cost. This would allow consumers to purchase more products increasing sales. This would also settle the pricing problem. It could now be sold at a cheaper price because of inexpensive materials. It would have another advantage over its competitors, as it would not be so expensive.

There is a definite need for a marketing department, not just one person. Also more sales people should be hired. There should be more funds directed to advertising and less going towards traveling and trade shows. Trap-Ease could increase advertising by "product testing, mailers, internet, and personal selling".

Trap-Ease should also rethink its channels of distribution. As its target market was housewives, it was only directed at supermarkets, hardware stores and drugstores. It should focus more on restaurants, factories, and hospitals. It could also distribute its product through the Internet.

Trap-Ease could also do more market research to determine exactly what the consumers want in a mousetrap. It could also focus on providing better customer service with its consumers and retailers.

Conclusion

Trap-Ease has a very promising idea that with the right planning could become a thriving company. In order for it to succeed it needs to adopt a few changes. The target market must be increased to include businesses such as restaurants, factories and hospitals. A mission statement must be clearly established to consumers. There must be an increase in advertising to the right markets. The budget must be improved to direct more funds to the advertisement department. More employees, especially in sales, are required. Different distribution channels such as the Internet should be explored.

"IPM for Rodents in Schools". The Pennsylvania Integrated Pest Management Program. September 10, 00. http//paipm.cas.psu.edu/schoolmn/rodents.pdf.

Kotler, Philip, Gary Armstrong, Peggy G. Cunningham. Principles of Marketing. 5th Canadian edition. New Jersey Prentice-Hall, 00. (-).

Muir, Robert. "Mousetrap Marketing". Prometheus Equity Partners. September 18, 00. http//www.pepvc.com/Publications/mousetrap.htm.

"Rodent Traps". Professional Pest Control Products. http//www.pestproducts.com/rodent_traps.htm#Live.

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French and English goverment

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Both the French and the English government were very complex during the 17th century.

The French government 'had considerable power, which increased' (course guide pg18) over

time. France was a country that was combined by numerous cultures. The relationship

between the crown and it's 'more powerful institutional subjects' (Blk pg7) was a pattern of

Cheap Custom Essays on French and English goverment

overstated demands that were made by the royals.

In some of the French provinces the Governments were known as 'Pays d' etat' these had

control over the taxation in their province and were mainly concerned with local interest.

People saw their privileges as an obstacle that could affect the central government.

'Marillac' wanted to introduce the system of elections which existed in the rest of France

in to the provinces but the only way this could be done was if the province raised enough

money to compensate the crown. There were some regions were no estates existed,

known as 'Pay d' election' the taxes were levied by 'elus' which were officials that was

selected by the central government. They were among some of the richest men in their

area; one of the reasons may have been due to no tax that they paid. They were able to

give exemptions to tenants of their friends but this placed a huge burden on the

community that was unable to pay. This system broke the province but it did increase

the wealth of a few individuals.

One system that was effective was the 'Paulitte' it was an effective way of stability that

produced local 'elites' that had a vested interest in securing a central government. Once

this system was in place the crown exploited it, by increasing the financial burden on the

existing officers so it could raise more profits.

During the 17th century each region in France was ruled by a Governor and Lieutenant

Governor these were normally taken from nobility. As time went on their powers soon

became less and were taken over by the 'Intendants' their role was extended by

'Richelieu.' Office was an important step up the ladder of promotion within the

Sovereign courts of justice. Most intendants came from well established families. Based

on their duties that had to be carried out, would very much depend on the level of status

that was received. 'They acted as the eyes and ears of Paris.' (Blk pg) Their role was to fix

the level of the 'tallie' instead of leaving it to the local officials. The intendants also had

a high degree of supervision over the activities of the local officials. Was this so more

money could be claimed for the intendants? Intendants were normally outsiders to the

generalite, they had no interest in the locality, and this was so the risk of becoming too

involved in the life of the 'Generalite' was reduced. If they did become to close they

would have been moved to another post after a few years. The intendants were only there

to satisfy the needs of the crown.

Upholding of the law and order in the provinces rested with the sovereign courts,

especially the Parliaments. They all saw themselves as sovereign courts based in their

own region. Parliament had jurisdiction over everything to do with 'Fiefs, finance, police

matters, defence of cities.' (Blk Pg74). The Paris parliament had very little influence on

events that went on in the provinces even though all the Parliaments from other regions

based themselves on the most important 'Parliament of Paris.' (Course guide pg1) There were

great variations between the French communities due to the geographical regions. In

Northern France the communities where Sergneunal control was at it greatest,

communities of the south were at their weakest. In Southern France assembles were

know as 'Consulats' These communities has a strong self-government and community

institutions were highly developed. Local communities were governed by assemblies and

in England by part time un- professional officers who were appointed from the local

gentry. As for the rural parts of Ireland the organization depended on Dublin and how

much area it wished to control.

Areas such as the mountain region and the northern borders of France were strongly

defended. Northern Assemblies were known as 'Echevinages.' The elected Leaders

were know as 'echeviens' or 'mayors' these were dependent on the local 'Seigneur' The

Assembly and offices did not count for much when there was a powerful 'seigneur'

The most powerful assemblies were the ones in the mountains where the authority of

'seigneurs and the crown were weak. There was a high rate of participation, as the

jurisdiction covered a large area as this was essential to survive. There were variations

between the relationships of the Parish officers and assemblies. In France the assembly

was more essential than its officers who were seen as just agents. This assembly formed

the connection between the community and the higher levels of government. In England

it was the other way around. The officers were the tie between the community and the

high levels of Government, ecclesiastical and secular, not the vestry.

The urban boroughs were governed by corporations.

In England the most of the ordinary people were very remote from the king's

government. Generally people of normal background were likely to serve in a less

important local government especially in parishes and towns. There was 'much tension

between the local community and the central government' (The Stuart age pg 6) as they wanted

to interfere with local dealings. 'The country was ruled by a network of officials, most of

whom were unpaid.' (Course guide pg16) but this did gain them social status, local control and

some may of gained financial control from there situation.

In the early part of the 17th century, lord lieutenants, deputy lieutenants and Justices of

the Peace were the main officials of the English Local Government unlike the Governor

and lieutenants in France whose power had declined. This meant that the power and

status of the 'Sheriffs' would decline by the early part of the century the only

responsibility the sheriff had was to preside over the county court. There main

responsibility was for 'more than one county' (The Stuart age pg 7) and these were usually

assisted by Deputies. He was chiefly responsibly for maintaining the militia, that

freeholders provided arms and to defend the realm.

The 'Justices of the Peace' took most of the weight from the local government. Some

even carried out their 'duties without pay', (The Stuart age pg 7) as this was an honour to be a

'JP.' Gentlemen were taught from birth that it was a perfect gentleman to serve the

community; it would hold high social status and local power if this was gained. JP's were

added as magistrates in the county courts, they were able to sit in judgement on criminal

cases, protect forest wild life which belonged to the king, all this with out pay. The

Crown had the formal right to appoint a JP, even though is was of limited power, it was

no good placing a loyal man of low social status on the bench in order to secure a

unpopular royal policy, that went against the wishes of a wealthy landowner. The

important responsibility that was held by the Lord Lieutenants, Deputy Lieutenants and

JP's was to act as a direct contact between the Crown and the localities. They too acted as

our eyes and ears which were very similar to the duties that was required of the

'Indendants' in France.

They were able to channel decisions that had been made by the Crown to the locals and

the Privy Council; this also worked the other way to as they were able to tell the Royal

Government the opinion of the country from the locals.

Not only did the Government have the eyes and ears of the Lord Lieutenants, Deputy

Lieutenants and the JP's but there was other ways of maintaining contact, gathering and

providing information from the locals. The Council of the North was staffed by

Professionals. Lawyers and local men who were directly responsible to the Privy Council

helped maintain their contact. In Britain the relationship between the community and the

parish was different from France. The Vestry and assembly were very much of one but

the 'General de la paroisse carried out the functions of both bodies, this gave them

considerable control over the church. In the British Isle the ecclesiastical parish was a

main unit of administration but in France the parish church was used as a place for

showing community harmony and appreciation. Symbols of power were also put on

display. Depending on where a church was placed was an important factor it also gave

the community life. 'Not only did the church control public opinion, but it also moulded

it.' (blk pg8)

The church played an important role in swaying the authority of the crown. It was

believed that religious uniformity was undividable from political order

The crown was able to rely on the votes from the Archbishops and the Bishops in the

House of Lords. But as for the local parish this may not have been the case as the JP's

'gave instructions to the church wardens and overseers of the poor for each parish to levy

the poor rate from all householders' (Princes and Peoples pg0)

In England and France the governments they had held many important political talents in

the planning of support from all there allies. 'Patronage was the oil which kept the wheels

of government turning' (Blk pg70).

France was mainly driven by tax assessments and the collection of money from where

they could. But in England the officials had more of a law and order role and were also

unpaid for there duties that were took on. Social status also is one of the major ties, and

this causes conflict between relations. In both countries there aim was to endeavour

standardization of practice and agree to this. Again it all comes down to three main areas,

powerful people, taxes and religion.

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