French and English goverment

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Both the French and the English government were very complex during the 17th century.

The French government 'had considerable power, which increased' (course guide pg18) over

time. France was a country that was combined by numerous cultures. The relationship

between the crown and it's 'more powerful institutional subjects' (Blk pg7) was a pattern of

Cheap Custom Essays on French and English goverment

overstated demands that were made by the royals.

In some of the French provinces the Governments were known as 'Pays d' etat' these had

control over the taxation in their province and were mainly concerned with local interest.

People saw their privileges as an obstacle that could affect the central government.

'Marillac' wanted to introduce the system of elections which existed in the rest of France

in to the provinces but the only way this could be done was if the province raised enough

money to compensate the crown. There were some regions were no estates existed,

known as 'Pay d' election' the taxes were levied by 'elus' which were officials that was

selected by the central government. They were among some of the richest men in their

area; one of the reasons may have been due to no tax that they paid. They were able to

give exemptions to tenants of their friends but this placed a huge burden on the

community that was unable to pay. This system broke the province but it did increase

the wealth of a few individuals.

One system that was effective was the 'Paulitte' it was an effective way of stability that

produced local 'elites' that had a vested interest in securing a central government. Once

this system was in place the crown exploited it, by increasing the financial burden on the

existing officers so it could raise more profits.

During the 17th century each region in France was ruled by a Governor and Lieutenant

Governor these were normally taken from nobility. As time went on their powers soon

became less and were taken over by the 'Intendants' their role was extended by

'Richelieu.' Office was an important step up the ladder of promotion within the

Sovereign courts of justice. Most intendants came from well established families. Based

on their duties that had to be carried out, would very much depend on the level of status

that was received. 'They acted as the eyes and ears of Paris.' (Blk pg) Their role was to fix

the level of the 'tallie' instead of leaving it to the local officials. The intendants also had

a high degree of supervision over the activities of the local officials. Was this so more

money could be claimed for the intendants? Intendants were normally outsiders to the

generalite, they had no interest in the locality, and this was so the risk of becoming too

involved in the life of the 'Generalite' was reduced. If they did become to close they

would have been moved to another post after a few years. The intendants were only there

to satisfy the needs of the crown.

Upholding of the law and order in the provinces rested with the sovereign courts,

especially the Parliaments. They all saw themselves as sovereign courts based in their

own region. Parliament had jurisdiction over everything to do with 'Fiefs, finance, police

matters, defence of cities.' (Blk Pg74). The Paris parliament had very little influence on

events that went on in the provinces even though all the Parliaments from other regions

based themselves on the most important 'Parliament of Paris.' (Course guide pg1) There were

great variations between the French communities due to the geographical regions. In

Northern France the communities where Sergneunal control was at it greatest,

communities of the south were at their weakest. In Southern France assembles were

know as 'Consulats' These communities has a strong self-government and community

institutions were highly developed. Local communities were governed by assemblies and

in England by part time un- professional officers who were appointed from the local

gentry. As for the rural parts of Ireland the organization depended on Dublin and how

much area it wished to control.

Areas such as the mountain region and the northern borders of France were strongly

defended. Northern Assemblies were known as 'Echevinages.' The elected Leaders

were know as 'echeviens' or 'mayors' these were dependent on the local 'Seigneur' The

Assembly and offices did not count for much when there was a powerful 'seigneur'

The most powerful assemblies were the ones in the mountains where the authority of

'seigneurs and the crown were weak. There was a high rate of participation, as the

jurisdiction covered a large area as this was essential to survive. There were variations

between the relationships of the Parish officers and assemblies. In France the assembly

was more essential than its officers who were seen as just agents. This assembly formed

the connection between the community and the higher levels of government. In England

it was the other way around. The officers were the tie between the community and the

high levels of Government, ecclesiastical and secular, not the vestry.

The urban boroughs were governed by corporations.

In England the most of the ordinary people were very remote from the king's

government. Generally people of normal background were likely to serve in a less

important local government especially in parishes and towns. There was 'much tension

between the local community and the central government' (The Stuart age pg 6) as they wanted

to interfere with local dealings. 'The country was ruled by a network of officials, most of

whom were unpaid.' (Course guide pg16) but this did gain them social status, local control and

some may of gained financial control from there situation.

In the early part of the 17th century, lord lieutenants, deputy lieutenants and Justices of

the Peace were the main officials of the English Local Government unlike the Governor

and lieutenants in France whose power had declined. This meant that the power and

status of the 'Sheriffs' would decline by the early part of the century the only

responsibility the sheriff had was to preside over the county court. There main

responsibility was for 'more than one county' (The Stuart age pg 7) and these were usually

assisted by Deputies. He was chiefly responsibly for maintaining the militia, that

freeholders provided arms and to defend the realm.

The 'Justices of the Peace' took most of the weight from the local government. Some

even carried out their 'duties without pay', (The Stuart age pg 7) as this was an honour to be a

'JP.' Gentlemen were taught from birth that it was a perfect gentleman to serve the

community; it would hold high social status and local power if this was gained. JP's were

added as magistrates in the county courts, they were able to sit in judgement on criminal

cases, protect forest wild life which belonged to the king, all this with out pay. The

Crown had the formal right to appoint a JP, even though is was of limited power, it was

no good placing a loyal man of low social status on the bench in order to secure a

unpopular royal policy, that went against the wishes of a wealthy landowner. The

important responsibility that was held by the Lord Lieutenants, Deputy Lieutenants and

JP's was to act as a direct contact between the Crown and the localities. They too acted as

our eyes and ears which were very similar to the duties that was required of the

'Indendants' in France.

They were able to channel decisions that had been made by the Crown to the locals and

the Privy Council; this also worked the other way to as they were able to tell the Royal

Government the opinion of the country from the locals.

Not only did the Government have the eyes and ears of the Lord Lieutenants, Deputy

Lieutenants and the JP's but there was other ways of maintaining contact, gathering and

providing information from the locals. The Council of the North was staffed by

Professionals. Lawyers and local men who were directly responsible to the Privy Council

helped maintain their contact. In Britain the relationship between the community and the

parish was different from France. The Vestry and assembly were very much of one but

the 'General de la paroisse carried out the functions of both bodies, this gave them

considerable control over the church. In the British Isle the ecclesiastical parish was a

main unit of administration but in France the parish church was used as a place for

showing community harmony and appreciation. Symbols of power were also put on

display. Depending on where a church was placed was an important factor it also gave

the community life. 'Not only did the church control public opinion, but it also moulded

it.' (blk pg8)

The church played an important role in swaying the authority of the crown. It was

believed that religious uniformity was undividable from political order

The crown was able to rely on the votes from the Archbishops and the Bishops in the

House of Lords. But as for the local parish this may not have been the case as the JP's

'gave instructions to the church wardens and overseers of the poor for each parish to levy

the poor rate from all householders' (Princes and Peoples pg0)

In England and France the governments they had held many important political talents in

the planning of support from all there allies. 'Patronage was the oil which kept the wheels

of government turning' (Blk pg70).

France was mainly driven by tax assessments and the collection of money from where

they could. But in England the officials had more of a law and order role and were also

unpaid for there duties that were took on. Social status also is one of the major ties, and

this causes conflict between relations. In both countries there aim was to endeavour

standardization of practice and agree to this. Again it all comes down to three main areas,

powerful people, taxes and religion.

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The Little Prince (english) chapters 1-9

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Chapters IIII

Summary

Chapter I

But [a grown-up] would always answer, Thats a hat. Then I wouldnt talk about boa constrictors or jungles or stars. I would put myself on his level and talk about bridge and golf and politics and neckties. The novels narrator says that when he was six years old, before he became a pilot, he saw in a book a picture of a boa constrictor devouring a wild animal. In the same book, the narrator read that boa constrictors must hibernate for six months after swallowing their prey in order to digest it. Fascinated by this information, the narrator drew his first drawing, which he calls Drawing Number One. The drawing, a picture of a boa constrictor digesting an elephant, looked like a lumpy blob with two flat lines tapering off to the left and right. But grown-ups were not frightened by the picture, because they thought it was supposed to be a hat.

To explain his drawing to adults, the narrator drew Drawing Number Two, an x-ray view of Drawing Number One that showed the elephant inside the snake. Disturbed by this image, grown-ups advised the narrator to give up drawing and pursue geography, arithmetic, and grammar instead. Realizing that grown-ups would always require things to be explained to them, the narrator decided not to be an artist and became a pilot instead. He admits that the geography he learned did prove to be useful for flying.

The narrators opinion of adults never improved. Every time he met a grown-up, he would test him by showing him Drawing Number One. The grown-ups would always think it was a picture of a hat. Consequently, the narrator knew he could talk with the grown-ups only about boring, pragmatic topics like politics and neckties.

Chapter II

The narrator feels lonely his whole life until one day, six years before he tells his story, he crashes his plane in the middle of the Sahara desert. As the situation is beginning to look dire, the pilot is shocked to hear an odd little voice asking him to draw a sheep. He turns to see the little prince. The prince looks like a small, blond child, but he stares intently at the pilot without the fear that a child lost in the desert would have. The pilot does not know how to draw a sheep, so instead he sketches Drawing Number One, and he is astounded when the little prince recognizes it as a picture of an elephant inside a boa constrictor. The little prince rejects Drawing Number One, insisting that he needs a drawing of a sheep. After drawing three different sheep that the prince rejects, the pilot finally draws a box and gives it to the little prince. He says that the box contains exactly the type of sheep for which he is looking. This drawing makes the little prince very happy. The prince wonders if the sheep will have enough grass to eat, explaining that the place where he lives is quite small.

Chapter III

The pilot tries to find out where his mysterious new friend comes from, but the little prince prefers asking questions rather than answering them. He questions the pilot about his plane and what it does, and the pilot tells the little prince that it allows him to fly through the air. The little prince takes comfort in the fact that the pilot also came from the sky, asking him what planet he comes from. The pilot is surprised by this question and tries to find out what planet the little prince comes from. But the little prince ignores the pilots queries and admires the sheep the pilot has drawn for him. The pilot offers to draw a post and a string to tie the sheep to so that it wont get lost, but the little prince laughs. The sheep will not get lost, he says, because he comes from a very small planet.

Chapter IV

From his conversation with the little prince, the narrator realizes that the planet the little prince comes from is only the size of a house. The narrator explains that when astronomers discover new planets, they give them numbers instead of names. The narrator is pretty sure that the little prince lives on Asteroid B-61, which was first sighted by a Turkish astronomer in 10. The astronomers presentation of his discovery was ridiculed at that years International Astronomical Congress because he wore traditional Turkish clothes. After a Turkish dictator ordered all his subjects to begin wearing European clothing, the astronomer presented his report again in 10 and was well received.

The narrator insists that he is telling us these details about the princes planet only to satisfy his grown-up readers. He says that grown-ups can understand only facts and figures; they never wonder about essential qualities like beauty and love. Grown-ups decide what is beautiful by measuring how old a person is or how much a house costs. To believe in the existence of the little prince, grown-ups need more proof than simply being told that the prince asked the narrator to draw him a sheep. They demand further, quantifiable proof of the little princes existence.

The narrator also mentions that he wants his book to be read carefully, as it has been very painful for him to recollect these memories of his little departed friend. The narrator worries that he is growing old, and he writes and illustrates his story so he will not forget the little prince. Drawing the pictures in particular reminds the narrator of what its like to be a child. He acknowledges, however, that he cannot see sheep through the walls of boxes, because like all humans, he has had to grow old.

Chapter V

Each day, the pilot learns a bit more about the little princes home. On the third day of the little princes visit, he finds out that the prince wants the sheep to eat the baobab seedlings that grow on his planet. Baobabs are gigantic trees whose roots could split the princes tiny planet into pieces. The little prince notes that one must be very careful to take care of ones planet. Since all planets have good plants and bad plants, one must remain vigilant and disciplined, uprooting the bad plants as soon as they start to grow. The prince remembers a lazy man who always procrastinated and ignored three small baobab bushes that eventually grew to overtake the mans planet. At the princes instruction, the narrator illustrates the overgrown planet as a warning to children. He adds that the baobabs pose an everyday threat that most people deal with without even being aware of it. The narrator states that the lesson to be learned from the story of the baobabs is so important that he has drawn them more carefully than any other drawing in the book.

Chapter VI

On his fourth day with the little prince, the narrator becomes aware of just how small the little princes planet really is. The little prince is surprised that on Earth, he has to wait for the sun to go down to see a sunset. On his planet, a person can see the end of the day whenever he likes by simply moving a few steps. The prince mentions that one day he saw forty-four sunsets and that sunsets can cheer a person up when he or she is sad. He refuses to tell the narrator, however, whether or not he was sad on the day he saw forty-four sunsets.

Chapter VII

If some one loves a flower of which just one example exists among all the millions and millions of stars, thats enough to make him happy … But if the sheep eats the flower, then for him its as if, suddenly, all the stars went out. On his fifth day in the desert, the little prince wonders if his new sheep will eat both bushes and flowers. The pilot, who is trying to repair his plane, replies that sheep will eat anything, and the little prince asks him what use a flowers thorns are if they dont protect the flower. The pilot, frustrated with his engine and worried by his lack of food and water, yells that he is too busy with serious matters to answer the princes questions. Furious, the little prince accuses the pilot of acting like a grown-up instead of seeing whats really important. The little prince argues that if a truly unique flower exists on a persons planet, nothing is more important than wondering if a sheep will eat that flower. He then bursts into tears. Suddenly realizing that his new friends happiness is the most serious matter of all, the narrator cradles the little prince in his arms and comforts him by assuring the little prince that his flower will be fine. He offers to draw a muzzle for the sheep.

Chapter VIII

The prince tells the narrator all about his flower. One day, the prince notices a mysterious new plant sprouting on his planet. Worried that it might be a new type of baobab, he watches it cautiously at first. The sprout soon grows into a rose, a beautiful but vain creature who constantly demands that the little prince take care of her. The little prince loves the rose very much and is happy to satisfy her requests. He waters her, covers her with a glass globe at night, and puts up a screen to protect her from the wind. One day, however, the little prince catches the rose on the verge of making a minor lie. The rose says to the prince, Where I come from, even though she grew from a seed on the little princes planet and therefore does not come from anywhere. The roses lie makes the prince doubt the sincerity of her love. He grows so unhappy and lonely that he decides to leave his planet. The prince tells the pilot that he would not have left if he had looked at the roses deeds instead of her words. He realizes that the rose actually loves him, but he knows he is too young and inexperienced to know how to love her.

Chapter IX

On the day of the little princes departure from his planet, he cleans out all three of his volcanoes, even the dormant one, and he uproots all the baobab shoots he can find. He waters his rose a final time. As he is about to place the glass globe over the roses head, he feels like crying. He says good-bye to the rose. At first, she refuses to reply, but then she apologizes, assures the little prince that she loves him, and says she no longer needs him to set the globe over her. She says she will be fine without him to take care of her. Urging the little prince to leave, the rose turns away so he will not see her cry.

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Effective Practices in Increased Student Performances

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Description of Program

The availability of general education and special education preschool programs is the key to success for students now and later when they enter school age programs. My dual role as a special education administrator and a general education advisory board member enables me to facilitate parents and professionals in this community, and ultimately results in students achieving higher performances on all levels of education in School District 6.

As an administrator of the Committee on Preschool Special Education I ensure that children receive appropriate preschool services as mandated by their Individualized Education Programs. It is my duty to guide parents during the referral and evaluation process and ensure them of their due process rights. I then chair the committee of evaluators, special educators, general educators, preschool coordinators, and clinicians, to develop an appropriate Individual Education program for each preschooler in need. I present options according to State Education Department guidelines, and present the continuum of services in terms that parents can understand. I make sure parents and educators are comfortable with the final recommendation of the committee. I then contract the appropriate service providers, utilizing agencies, schools, and independent providers and deliver them in the least restrictive environment for each individual preschool student.

As a member of the Universal Preschool Advisory Board in District 6 I help to ensure that preschool programs are available to all four year olds in this district. I was one of the original members of the Advisory Board when we first implemented "UPK" classes in New York City. I helped select the first preschool sites in the district and continue to evaluate prospective sites and re-evaluate our current program. We now have classes in six public schools and ten private schools, and accommodate approximately eight hundred four year olds in half-day programs throughout the district. I consult with the UPK general education teachers to help identify and accommodate children with special needs in their classrooms.

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I am familiar with the broad spectrum of services available for preschool students in both the public and private domains, in special education and general education. Subsequently, children receive appropriate services in a timely fashion, according to State Education mandates, and in the least restrictive environment. Parents are comfortable with recommendations and services. Special education teachers and service providers have workable programs that can easily be implemented. General education teachers have the support they need to accommodate special education students in their preschool classrooms. I help this community educate young children early and successfully. The carry over we sees into school age programs is impressive.

Description of Qualitative Exemplary Practices

I was one of the first Preschool Special Education Administrators hired by New York City when the Committee on Preschool Special Education started in 18. In those early days, services were only provided to four year olds, and in self-contained classrooms, and only in private special education preschools. Through the years the school district's jurisdiction expanded to accommodate three and four year olds, not just five to twenty one year olds as in the past. And instead of placing children in segregated classrooms, in privately contracted schools, we allowed for related services, such as Speech/Language, Occupational, and Physical Therapies, and Counseling, to be provided in the regular preschool settings or even in the home. The continuum of services now also includes the Special Education Itinerant Teacher program that provides support in the regular classroom setting, with consultation for the regular classroom teacher, and direct assistance for the student within the class, to maintain that student in that general education class. Another addition to the continuum was the Special Class in the Integrated Setting, which allows for preschool students with disabilities to benefit from a special education teacher and staff, together with their non-handicapped peers, in the same structured classroom. This continuum of services reflects the consideration of the State Education Department mandate that services be delivered in the least restrictive environment. But it is how the CPSE Administrator carries out these mandates that ultimately decides whether children are actually receiving appropriate services in the least restrictive environment.

It is my obligation to inform parents and teachers, and administrators and directors of programs, and clinicians and service providers, of what options are available, according to this continuum of services, and to deliver them in the least restrictive environment. I was instrumental in initially working with the District Office in implementing the first integrated class on the preschool level in this district, which is at P.S. 1. And when parents of the children in preschool integrated classes and SEIT programs started to demand the same type of services when their children entered kindergarten, I helped the district office and CSE review teams in recommending and implementing integrated classes and consultant teacher programs on the school age level. So, we see that what started with preschool services transitioned into the elementary school age level programs. Empowered parents on the preschool level insist on similar services and patterns for success on the school age level.

When CPSE first started we had to classify preschool children with the same specific classifications used on the school age level. It was difficult to categorize, or label children, especially at such a young age. Now, we use one generic term, "preschool student with a disability," which is a less restrictive means of classifying educationally handicapped youngsters. I remember one particular case of a student with Down's syndrome. I directed the parent to look at different special education sites in order to place his son in an appropriate class. After looking at one particular site, the father called me and said, "I know my son is mentally retarded, but does he have to be in a class with stupid children?" I learned from this parent's words. His words opened my mind, and opened my heart. I learned that even children with severe disabilities are entitled to be schooled with non-handicapped peers, given the right support services. Eventually that child was mainstreamed into an integrated class setting. When he transitioned from the CPSE to the school age CSE, that father was well aware of his rights, knew what the continuum of services was, and insisted that his son receive appropriate services in the least restrictive environment just as he had on the preschool level.

It is my goal to inform other administrators and the general public of what services are available for preschool students, and to identify and service children as early as possible. I have done this by personally training new CPSE Administrators in New York City over the past ten years. I sat on the committee that developed the current Standard Operating Procedures Manual for New York City Board of Education. I consult on a daily basis with other administrators, and directors of both special education and general education preschool programs. I assist in the smooth transition of preschool students with disabilities into the school age programs by working with the CSE teams that evaluate and place children for kindergarten. I actively participate on the UPK Advisory board our community. I have run workshops at local preschools to inform parents and teachers about preschool services available in our community. I feel it is my duty in my roles as both special education administrator and general education UPK Advisory Board member to empower parents and professionals, and continually meet the needs of preschool students. Ultimately this empowerment is reflected in parents and professionals in the entire community, preschool and school age.

Description of Outcomes

When I first taught in NYC school over twenty years ago, I taught a self contained class of educationally handicapped kindergarten, first and second grade students. Most had never received preschool services of any kind, and most had been identified as needing special education services only after failing in the regular class placement, after they had started elementary school.

My goal as CPSE Administrator and as the Universal Preschool Advisory Board member is to make sure children are receiving appropriate preschool services, so that they will succeed in school early. Children who have problems educationally must be identified before they fail on the school age level. As an administrator in District 6, working with CPSE and UPK I can ensure for the early identification and delivery of services on the preschool level. Early identification will lead to greater success and less restrictive services on the school age level. Many students who receive preschool services are decertified before they even enter kindergarten. Therefore we see greater student performance for both general education and special education students in the upper grades.

Educational services can be viewed in the shape of a pyramid. The preschool services - general education in the form of the UPK classrooms and special education preschool services form the base of the pyramid. This component is the foundation for the upper grades, or the higher levels on the pyramid. Educational services, be it special education or general education, should be broad based and extensive. If we give broad based, enriched services and supports on the preschool level, the student will need fewer and less restrictive special education support services on the elementary level. Parents are more informed now regarding what their children need on the preschool level. They transition their children into the elementary school programs with the same expectations they had when their children received preschool services. Quality preschool programs through CPSE services and UPK programs will result in better-prepared students overall. If student outcomes are higher on the preschool level, they will subsequently be higher on the school age level.

As an active Universal Prekindergarten Advisory Board member and an Administrator for the Committee on Preschool Special Education in District 6 I do all I can to ensure quality services on the preschool level, which ultimately results in greater student performance on all levels of education.

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Reasonable working hours

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For nearly three years, one of the main activities of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) has been to conduct a campaign for "reasonable working hours". It commenced with a survey completed in October 1, which linked the sharp increase in working hours over the past two decades with stress-related illnesses and workplace accidents.

Apart from occasional media releases, the "campaign" consisted entirely of running a test case in the Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC), seeking the insertion of a "reasonable hours" clause in federal awards. Few workers were involved in any way. No mass meetings or industrial action were ever called. The ACTU's purpose was to bury the issue in the industrial court and head off any independent opposition and action by working people.

When the AIRC handed down its ruling at the end of last month, the result was predictable. It will do nothing to assist the millions of workers forced to work increasingly longer hours. Instead, the decision enshrines the present work regime, while creating the illusion that workers now have the right to refuse long overtime hours.

The court ruled that workers can refuse to work "excessive or unreasonable" overtime on a particular day on the grounds of family responsibilities or health and safety considerations. However, it neither defined what constitutes "excessive hours" nor placed a ceiling on the number of hours that employers can compel their staff to work. The ACTU did not seek such a definition nor insist on regulations that will restrict employers.

At the same time, the AIRC rejected out of hand the only specific claim put forward by the ACTU that workers be given two days off with pay after working "extreme hours," such as 48 hours per week for three months.

Nevertheless, ACTU president Sharon Burrow hailed the ruling as an "historic victory" that gave workers "empowerment and control" over their working lives.

Only those who are both distant from and indifferent to the enormous difficulties that plague the everyday lives of ordinary working people could make such a claim. Workers are unlikely to refuse to work overtime when they can be easily replaced from the existing massive pool of unemployed.

Nor can those who refuse to work "excessive hours" rely on any protection from the unions, which have agreed that the definition of "unreasonable" hours will be determined industry by industry "in accordance with their requirements".

Moreover, real wages have declined so far over the past two decades that many workers are now forced to work extraordinary amounts of overtime just to make ends met.

The director of Adelaide University's Centre for Labour Research, Dr Barbara Pocock, gave expert evidence in the case. Dr Pocock warned that the ruling "would not stop the trend towards longer hours".

Just how little Burrow's claim of worker empowerment corresponds to reality can be gauged from the comments from the federal government and major employers, who welcomed the ruling. Workplace Relations Minister Tony Abbott described the result as "fair", saying that the issue of working hours remained "in the hands of companies and employees in the workplace". Australian Industries Group chief executive Bob Herbert said little had changed as a result of the AIRC decision, because "these issues are mostly worked out at the workplace".

Long hours and ill-health

Research conducted by Iain Campbell of RMIT University, which was presented during the ACTU test case, showed that average working hours in Australia are now longer than most other industrialised countries and are moving toward top ranking, alongside the US and South Korea.

The average full-time working week increased by .7 hours between 18 and 000, a larger increase than other OECD countries. According to Campbell, "this amounts to over 1 million extra hours per week or the equivalent of 550,000 full-time jobs". From 18 to 000 this trend accelerated, adding 48 minutes to the average working week.

Between 185 and 00, the proportion of employees working 40-45 hours rose from .4 to 1. percent, while for 45-50 hours it increased from 17.8 to 6.1. The percentage working 50 hours or more rose from 10. to 17.4.

Data assembled by the ACTU revealed that the number working 60 hours or more increased from to over 7 percent between 180 and 16. The ACTU data also concluded that Australia has the highest rate of unpaid overtime among developed countries, with 5 percent of full-time employees not paid for an average of .7 hours a week each.

The precarious circumstances of young workers and those in casual employment make them most susceptible to employer pressure. A Young Christian Workers Association survey last year of 1,400 young casual workers aged 15 to 5 found that a third were forced to work overtime without pay.

A report commissioned by the ACTU showed that long hours dramatically worsen existing medical problems, including diabetes, epilepsy, hypertension, asthma and digestive problems. Working more than 55 hours a week doubles the risk of heart disease. Chronic fatigue associated with excessive hours has been linked to nervousness, anxiety, sexual problems and depression.

Nearly half (4 percent) of those interviewed stated that work arrangements contributed to ongoing health problems. Some 76 percent complained of stress-related problems, 7 percent of continual tiredness, 55 percent of headaches, while 51 percent suffered from depression. The health problems increased proportionally to the number of hours worked.

Excessive hours also caused safety problems. Over a quarter of interviewees reported that longer hours had contributed to accidents or near misses at work. The report concluded that 40 percent of work accidents may be due to human error caused by fatigue. Another survey estimated that 17 hours of sustained wakefulnessand such working hours are not uncommonis the equivalent to having an unsafe blood alcohol level of 0.05 percent.

The ACTU's role

In mounting its test case, the ACTU did everything possible to cover over the role that the unions have played in creating these conditions.

ACTU assistant secretary Richard Marles, who ran the ACTU's case, claimed that the ruling would "reverse an obnoxious trend in play for the last 0 years," during which "workers have lost control over their own lives as more and more time and energy was handed over to the boss with longer and longer hours and greater intensification of work".

Workers did not simply "hand over" their time and conditions to employers. Marles' reference to 0 years inadvertently points to the historical reversal in the social position of the working class that began with the election of the Labor government headed by former ACTU president Bob Hawke in 18.

Under Hawke's Prices and Incomes Accord, the ACTU collaborated with the government to fundamentally restructure workplace relations to meet the demands of globally mobile capital. Year after year, hard-won protective conditions and job security were traded off. Central to this process was the enforcement of "flexibility," particularly in working hours.

Even in dangerous industries such as underground mining, 1-hour shifts were imposed, the five-day working week was abolished and continuous, seven-day around-the-clock production was introduced. Penalty rates, which once acted as a limited deterrent to employers demanding excessive overtime, were either scrapped or severely cut back.

The record shows that the "obnoxious trend" of longer hours, with its escalating health and safety problems, and terrible impact on workers' family and social life, did not fall from the sky. It is part of the legacy of decades of policing by the unions, in the interests of employers.

· Americans are working longer hours than ever. Between 16-18 the average American working year increased by 5 hours. In the following decade Americans continued to work more, with total work-year hours rising by an additional week.

· Working hours have increased more substantially for families. The combined annual work hours of prime-aged dual-earner couples rose from ,850 in 171 to ,450 in 188, an increase of 600 hours. An analysis of the Current Population Survey data on time use also found that working hours have increased more substantially for parents, and in particular single and young parents

· Adults should be able to attain a decent standard of living for their families on a reasonable number of hours of paid work. With only 4 hours in a day, it is not surprising that working parents who are working more hours to support their families financially while continuing to care for their children and other relatives are experiencing significant time pressures.

Shorter working hours do not increase employment

Shorter working hours do not lead to higher employment or better health. This is the conclusion of a report from the National Institute for Working Life.

The report, written by Jonas Bergström and Sofia Olofsdotter, is a summary of results of research on working hours. It was commissioned to be used as a basis by a working hours committee appointed by the Swedish Government Offices.

The report starts out on the basis that there are two ways of implementing reduced working hours retaining the same salary for employees in practice an increase in the hourly rate of pay or reducing salary.

According to the report, in order for a reduction in working hours to provide higher employment, stringent restrictions are required to ensure that the hourly rate of pay does not increase. Another precondition is the availability of a suitable labour force. Otherwise labour costs will be too high.

However, the report states that in the longer term the effects of shorter working hours tend to be insignificant or negative, due to a drop in total production. As unemployment is falling rapidly in Sweden and the lack of labour in increasing, the authors of the report believe that shorter working hours would actually reduce employment.

The report goes on to say that, when it comes to health, a reduction in working hours would probably benefit certain small groups with high workloads, but would result in little difference for the majority of workers. The impact on state transfer payment systems such as national health insurance and invalidity pensions is also likely to be small.

Increased equality between men and women is often cited as a reason for reducing working hours, but according to the National Institute of Working Life report it would be more effective if women were to increase their working hours, so that they worked the same hours as men. Women's paid work affects their work in the home more than that of men women who work full-time spend much less time on housework than women who work part-time. The authors of the report argue that if men had shorter working hours, it is likely that housework would be more equally distributed, but if women increased their working hours, the effect on equality would be even greater - not because men would spend more time on housework, but because women would spend less time on it.

The report adds that reducing working hours could have a different impact if working hours were shortened through local agreements which take into account the production and organisation of individual workplaces.

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Phillip and Alexander

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In 8 Phillip of Macedonia advanced his troops into battle at a place called Chaeronea. For both the Athenians and the Macedonians it was a very historical battle, a battle in which the result would decide the future for Athenians, Macedonians and all Greeks. For if the Athenians had secured victory on that morning in Chaernoea, then many questions need to be asked.

Demosthenes', who some have said was the greatest orator in this time of Greece and is often refereed to as the father of Democracy, did little to help the causes of Phillip of Macedonia. When news of Phillips success, in the north in Amphissa and Elateia, reached Athens, the Athenians were shocked, and no speaker dared to mount the rostrum as nobody was sure of what advice should be given . Demosthenes then stood proud and urged the Athenians to stand by the Thebans and fight Phillip. From this time onward Demosthenes was supported by all of Greece, which had recovered its confidence to the extent that even the generals would follow orders from him .

Phillip, whilst taking a more diplomatic approach, wanted a Greek war against Persia , which meant he wanted the cooperation of all Greeks states, especially the Athenians. The Athenians were important for many reasons but the main reason being that they still controlled a great navy and that an Athenian Fleet would be very useful . It is also possible that Phillip recognized Athens as the spiritual leader and center of Greece .

So when the peace ambassadors arrived in Athens they were sent away because Demosthenes had convinced the Athenians that Phillip was intending to destroy Athens , which is later disproved. Plutarch supports the bias view of Demosthenes when he states

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"Demosthenes political position was clear enough even while peace still prevailed, for he allowed no act of Phillips to pass un-criticized, and seized upon every occasion to incite and inflame the Athenians against him"

This statement shows how Demosthenes would oppose everything that Phillip had said and that he tried his best to keep the Athenians away from Phillip. Demosthenes, being a strong advocator of Democracy probably realized the problems associated with Athens had they signed any alliance with Phillip. So Phillip had no choice but to meet a combined military contingent of the Greeks at a place known as Chaeronea. The battle was short and it was evident that the combined army of Thrace, Athens and allies was no match for the Macedonian army. Phillip dealt with the Thebans severely but was very lenient on the Athenians.

Phillip shocked everyone and proved Demosthenes' wrong which lowered the respect for the once popular orator who at this stage had every able person fixing and manning the city walls. But instead of chasing the fleeing Athenians back into Athens he stayed put and called for a meeting of all Greek States. Phillip then acted in a way in which even Demothenes would have been shocked. To show respect, Phillip cremated the bodies of those killed in battle and sent the ashes escorted by Alexander, Antipater and Alcimachus back to Athens. The remaining captured prisoners were then sent home without ransom , which was unheard of. The Athenians, with much gratitude, welcomed an alliance with Phillip and the assembly voted to erect a statue of Phillip in the Agora, after making Phillip and Alexander honoree citizens of Greece .

With Athens now under control and with Demosthenes silenced Phillip then called a meeting in Corinth of the representatives of all city-states. It was there that he proposed an alliance, known now as the League of Corinth. Phillip ordered that ambassadors from all states should be summoned to Corinth in order to discuss the current state of affairs involving Greece . Phillip would not intervene in any structure of governments but a peace was to be established uniting all of Greece together. The original meeting was to safeguard the common peace and punish prospective transgressors. At no point it is believed , did Phillip approach the league at this foundational meeting about an invasion of Persia, but merely arranged the league into a working order that dealt with contributions as well as those members of the league that would decide to break the alliance.

The laws of the league were somewhat different then expected. The states that agreed to the peace and signed with the league (all but Sparta), were guaranteed freedom from outside attack even by their own exiles, freedom of navigation meaning that the states no longer had sea boundaries, and freedom from intervention in their internal affairs . States were to be protected against revolutionary changes to their constitutions and the league was to take action against those who cited a revolt or political coup against the accordance of the state. Like the Delian league , city-states were asked to contribute in times of war, in the ways that suited the league best. According to Justin, the league provided 00,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry, as well as the Macedonian army . Once the plans of the league were presented, each state involved in the league contributed a number of members to the council of delegates that were responsible for administering the common affairs of the Greeks. This council not only passed decrees but also acted as a court, which could speak or act on individuals or cities. These rulings allowed the league to maintain full control of Greece.

In the summer of 7, the league went into an offensive and defensive alliance for all time with the Macedonian state, defined as Phillip and his descendants' . Phillip then announced that he wanted to go to war with the Persians on behalf of the Greeks and to inflict punishment on them for the acts of sacrilege that they had committed . This sacrilege that Diodorus talks about is referring to the burning of the Greek temples and shrines during the Persian invasion of 40-8 .

This offensive view taken by Phillip won the respect of many Greeks, and so Phillip was unanimously elected 'Hegemon', with full powers of command over its forces by land and see, as a benefactor of Greece . This election by the Greek states handed all power over to Phillip. He was now in control of everything in Greece, with the exception of Sparta whom refused to join. Phillip was given Hegemon, not because of military strength, though I am sure that played a part, but more so for his diplomacy skills which he utilized tremendously well over the Greek states. His will power to revenge the Greek losses during the Persian wars was something that all Greeks had been looking forward and had anticipated for many years. Many leagues were formed but the Greek states often fought themselves over who was to lead Greece (Delian League). The fact that he did not advance onto Athens and other Greek states after the battle at Chaeronea and returned the ashes of the Athenian dead as well as releasing the prisoners were also important factors in Phillips diplomacy which caused the Greek states to join the league and honour Phillip as hegemon.

There is however two other reasons for the league forming. Isocrates, who had spent most of his career handing out pamphlets on Greek unity to fight a common enemy, had wrote a letter to Phillip after the battle of Chaeronea urging Phillip to "put an end to the madness and the imperialism with which the Greeks have treated one another, reconcile and bring them into concord, and declare war on Persia . Isocrates, who was 8 when he wrote the letter , said that he realized that his dreams of Greek unity were on the eve of fulfillment. Isocrates was a well-known and liked orator and Phillip admired him greatly. Phillips actions of uniting Greece were always on his agenda, however with letters from people such as Isocrates, Phillip would have felt encouraged and supported.

The second important aspect of the formation of the league was started when Phillip returned the Athenian army to Athens without ransom . Demades, also an orator, was a prisoner from the battle of Chaeronea. Phillip sent Demades back to Athens to open negotiations and to reiterate that he meant what he said by an alliance. At this stage, The Athenians, listening to Demosthenes, had everyone building the walls and manning forts . So the Athenians were surprised when Demades came with this settlement offer. The Athenians entered talks with Phillip and sent Demades and other delegates back to Phillip to continue negotiation and to ask for the return of soldiers . Phillip then handed the prisoners over to Demades without ransom. Demades also helped to organize the structure of the peace alliance, and when Alexander went to Athens to negotiate the peace, Demades played the leading role in securing the peace . The reasons for Demades being important is that had Athens sent someone else, such as Demothenes, who was originally sent with other delegates and turned back, then the peace alliance probably would have been stalled and therefore the league of Corinth may have been jeopardized.

The league, I believe, was a positive outcome from the point of view of Greece. I do however see Demothenes side, and it is difficult to presume what may have happened had Athens stayed out of the league or won at Chaeronea. Within the next two hundred years Rome would stamp their authority and there is no doubt that the battle of Chaeronea meant the end for Athens in that respect. Had Athens won at Chaeronea history could have changed in many ways. Phillip may of, and Alexander certainly would have come back into Greece in order to unite them. Persian intervention, which had already been present in Thrace , could have helped the southern Greek states hold out the Macedonians.

But the most important factor to consider was, was Athens already finished as far as Hellene Hegemony was concerned. We must remember here that Phillip ceased to pursue Athens after the battle. Had Phillip not been set on uniting Greece would he have taken Athens and if so, what would be of Athens and Greece in the years after the death of Alexander? This question is where I disagree with Demosthenes on the future of Athens. The Persians and Spartans had knocked down Athens many times before and so I believe that the Athenians were more than capable of bouncing back, as they did before, and take leadership of Greece. The only reasons why I can suggest for why they, and the rest of Greece, came to a sudden halt was because of lack of leadership. The deaths of Demosthenes, and Alexander in the years compromised any structure that had previously been put into place.

The League of Corinth for these reasons was the work of a shrewd statesman and a positive outcome. Greece was finally united, like Isocrates had dreamed. The Greeks, led by Alexander the Great, son of Phillip of Macedon, under Macedonian leadership went into Persia and took revenge, which many Greeks had waited for. The purpose of the league, although short term, was successful in uniting the Greeks in order to cause destruction upon the Persians for the acts of sacrilege that they had committed during the Persian wars .

Phillip may have had a primary agenda of uniting Greece in order to destroy Persia, but he hadn't much confidence in the Greeks as allies. When Phillip went back to Macedonia he left the Greeks with a number of reminders so that they were kept aware of who was hegemon and that complete cooperation was required. Phillip had a number of garrisons placed around Greece. Thrace, for their act of betrayal had a garrison installed, along with Corinth, Chalci and Ambacia. These garrisons however were not installed as a sign of authority but more so as a peacekeeping force . This can be confirmed by the fact that a garrison was installed in Ambacia, a part of Greece that Phillip had no quarrel with but may of thought it was a convenient site for a force to keep peace in northwestern Greece.

In 7 BC, Phillip of Macedon wanted to unite Greece in order to fight the Persians. The League of Corinth was formed which saw the dreams of Isocrates and others finally come true. It wasn't the first time the Greeks got together for war against the Persians , but it was the first time that the Greeks had a leader like Phillip. The league was successful in its aims, they were united and Persia was conquered. However, there was the price of freedom, which is exactly what the Greeks lost. They might have retained their states intact, but like the Athenians who lost control over their fleet, the states were under the control of Phillip and his successor Alexander up until the Greeks revolted in . The League of Corinth succeeded in uniting the Greeks in a war against Persia and was not intended to destroy or weaken any states, though it did.

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Brave New World and World State's Motto

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Humans have always wanted to achieve a utopia, an ideal world where everyone is happy, without any worries or concerns. In Brave New World, Huxley vividly portrays a futuristic society where people are all uniformly ¡§satisfied¡¨ with all that they have ever wanted or had. However, their happiness is meaningless since it is conditioned by the powerful absolute rule of the government. Totalitarianism is the ultimate control of an elite group over the masses. Huxley satirizes the idea of authoritative rules, by effectively portraying the evils of totalitarianism, and this can be seen particularly through the World State¡¦s motto ¡§Community, Identity, Stability¡¨.

Primarily, the government of World State gains control of its citizens through promoting the notion of a ¡¥community¡¦. In World State, solidarity is achieved through sports, sex, and other forms of entertainment. Unlike the sports in present day society, sports in this new world are always designed to be simplistic games that do not involve intellectual thinking. The Centrifugal Bumblepuppy is a typical example of the primitive sports played in World State. This game is not any different from nineholes, a game of the past in which marbles are rolled into holes, except that it utilizes much more elaborate apparatus such as the ¡§chrome-steel tower¡¨ and a ¡§rapidly revolving disk¡¨ (Huxley, 5). Though sports like Centrifugal Bumblepuppy are much more technologically advanced in their appearance, the principals behind these games are still extremely basic. None of the games requires ¡§more apparatus than a ball or a few sticks and perhaps a bit of netting¡¨ (Huxley, 5). By getting everyone involved in these artless sports, the State is able to prevent its people from spending time alone. Consequently, they cannot engage in any self-reflection ¡V a dangerous activity considered to lead one to separate him/herself from the community. In addition to sports, promiscuity is also highly promoted for its ability to unite people. Children of World State learn to play rudimentary sexual games at their leisure; adults are expected to practice sex on a regular basis with different people as well. World State demands its people to be bigamous so that personal romances, which can lead to deep passion, will not occur. When Lenina, a Beta woman, confides to her friend, Fanny, that she has been going out with Henry Foster, an Alpha, for four months without dating another man, Fanny warns her to be ¡§a little more promiscuous¡¨ as the ¡§D.H.C. objects to anything intense or long drawn¡¨ (Huxley, 4). After all, ¡§everyone belongs to everyone else¡¨ (Huxley, 47). Other than sports and sex, there are also different types of entertainment available in World State. One of them would be dancing in a cabaret. The people who attend these occasions dance in unison with the synthetic music. Songs played in the cabaret are all a part of the government¡¦s tactics to regulate its people to feel as if they were part of the community. For example, the lyrics of ¡§Bottle of Mine¡¨ strongly convey the notion that people are safely inside the comfort of the ¡§bottled¡¨ State. Consequently, they should all enjoy being a part of the World State and being a part of the community. Furthermore, World State disapproves of anyone being alone. When Fanny is ill and cannot engage into her ¡¥usual routine¡¦ with men, she spends her evening playing Musical Bridge (Huxley, 4). Once she knows that she will not have the accompaniment of men, it is almost an impulse for her to find a replacement activity. From this example, one can see that whether it is sports, sex, or other forms of entertainment, people in World State are obligated to occupy themselves with activities to be a part of the community. With this ideal in mind, it is not difficult to see why they can never learn the true meaning of individuality.

Identity is the second cardinal feature in World State¡¦s motto. Its meaning can be ambiguous. While it signifies ¡§absolute sameness¡¨, it can also be interpreted as who somebody or what something is, which, in essence means the characteristics that differentiate one person/object from another. In World State, people are identical because they are all laboratory-grown clones that are bottled and standardized from hatchery. However, the Predestinators, a government bureau, decide a prospective citizen¡¦s role in the hierarchy. Ranging from the most intelligent to the most moronic caste, there are the Alphas, Betas, Gamas, Deltas, and Epsilons. The intelligence of each caste member is predestined by pumping blood surrogate into the embryo bottles in which he/she is concealed. The blood surrogate given at different lengths of interval in the lungs determines the amount of oxygen the embryo receives. The lesser the oxygen, the more moronic the embryo gets, and consequently, the lower its caste in the society (Huxley, ). When these embryos develop into life form, they are conditioned mainly through hypnopaedia and the Neo-Pavlovian Process. One lesson that is taught by hypnopaedia is Elementary Class Consciousness. Through sleep teaching, Beta children learn to be happy because they don¡¦t have to work as hard as the ¡§frightfully intelligent¡¨ Alphas and because they are smarter than the others; Deltas are dull and Epsilons are too ignorant to be happy (Huxley, ). The State¡¦s suggestions of morals are repeated numerous times in Betas¡¦ sleep until ¡§at last the child¡¦s mind is these suggestions¡¨ (Huxley, 4). The second means of conditioning is done using the Neo-Pavlovian Process. From their early childhood, members of the society are trained to like or hate certain aspects of life, nature, and science. Delta babies are given flowers and books, but are then electrically shocked so that they will later develop an ¡¥instinctive¡¦ hatred of books and flowers. Consequently, they will never risk reading something which might undesirably decondition one of their reflexes and in the meantime, hate nature because it increases transport consumption (Huxley, ). Through the use of hypnopaedia and the Neo-Pavlovian process, the government succeeds to limit the mental freedom of its people. Citizens of World State are suppressed from choosing what they want or like for themselves and are always bound by the instructions of the State. As a result of conditioning, everyone loses his/her identity and individuality. Nevertheless, there are the exceptions of those who are defective since their decanting. They are represented by Bernard Marx and Helmholtz Watson. Unlike his associates, Bernard does not enjoy sports, and he prefers to be alone rather than to be in a crowd. Moreover, he questions the conformity of life in World State and the values his society teaches. Consequently, he is deported to Iceland because of his rebellious thinking and lifestyle. Likewise, Helmholtz Watson is also a defective product from the hatchery. He is intellectually, socially, and physically more superior than his fellow Alpha-Pluses. Because of the excessive abilities he possesses, Helmholtz becomes dissatisfied with the uniformity that the State promotes. He believes that there must be more to life than mere physical existence. Therefore, he too is banished from the State. Through the cases of Bernard Marx and Helmholtz Watson, readers can see that people who claim individuality and identity are mistreated. Because they violate the principles of technology and artificial personalities, they must be sent away so that they will not contaminate or disrupt other healthy members of the society. Obviously, what World State promotes is ¡§absolute sameness¡¨ in order to maintain social stability; thus, it eliminates those who strive for individual identities.

Lastly, social stability is the product of community and identity. It is what leads to happiness. In order to attain social stability, scientific progress is frozen. The State does not ¡§allow [science] to deal with any but the most immediate problems of the moment¡¨ because truth and beauty cannot ¡§keep the wheels steadily turning¡¨ (Huxley, 18). As well, subversive works of literature are also banned for the sake of stability. A typical example of brilliant creativity and inventions that are being censored in Brave New World can be found when Mustapha Mond, the World Controller of Western Europe, comes across a paper called ¡¥A New Theory of Biology¡¦. Though he finds ¡§the author¡¦s mathematical treatment of the conception of purpose is novel and highly ingenious, but [it is] heretical, and so far as the present social order is concerned, dangerous and potentially subversive¡¨; therefore, it must be banished (Huxley, 14). The writer of this paper will also have to be placed under careful supervision in order to ensure that he/she will not become a part of the subversive force of World State. Free flowing of ideas and criticisms, in the form of scientific truth and artistic beauty, is constrained; hence, freedom of thought and speech is also eliminated. ¡§Ford¡¨ takes the place of ¡§Lord¡¨ in the New World, for God now ¡§manifests himself as an absence¡¨ (Huxley, 14). There is no need for spiritual meditation anymore because when people feel depressed or unhappy, they can consume a hallucinogenic drug called soma. As Mustapha Mond describes, soma is ¡§Christianity without tears¡¨ (Huxley, 10). It makes people content without causing the sadness and guilt of Christianity. Though citizens of World State rely heavily on the consumption of soma to ¡§calm [their] anger, to reconcile [themselves] to [their] enemies, to make [them] patient and long-suffering¡¨, it dulls their senses and destroys their sense of urgency and desire for action. People like Linda, who intake large amounts of soma, shorten their lives as a result of it. Soma is a false form of happiness produced by the State. It provides a means of vacuous escapism that makes people comfortable with their lack of freedom in the society. Thus, they conform to the absolute ruling of the totalitarian State. While Linda is a representative of a successful product of World State¡¦s manipulation, John the Savage, symbolizes innocence and purity of life. His highly Christian beliefs about God and what is right and wrong contrast sharply with the values of the citizens of the New World ¡§God isn¡¦t compatible with machinery and scientific medicine and universal happiness¡¨ (Huxley, 188). Knowledge and wisdom, represented by truth and faith in God, are powerful qualities; yet, they are restricted to the minimum, for men are only valued for their physical existence. Knowing that the State gets rid of ¡§everything unpleasant instead of learning to put up with it¡¨, John exclaims his need for God, poetry, real danger, freedom, goodness, and sin (Huxley, 1). In the end, he becomes the ultimate victim of powerful totalitarian state. Mustapha Mond does not let John join his friends, Bernard Marx and Helmholtz Watson in exile, and thereby, retrieves his freedom. John¡¦s guilt toward ¡§his own murderous unkindness to [Linda]¡¨ causes him to whip himself as a form of his grief and repentance (Huxley, 17). Finally, with Lenina¡¦s arrival and the crowd¡¦s roar for a whipping, John turns his hatred toward the people of the new world inward upon himself, and ends his life by suicide. John¡¦s faith in believing purity and individuality make him susceptible in the impersonal new world. His tragic end frightfully illustrates the victory of temporary happiness and comfort over personal values and liberty. Freedom no longer holds any significance in striving for stability. Thus, people in World State are forever enslaved in the realm of controlled community and lost identities.

World State¡¦s motto, ¡§Community, Identity, Stability¡¨ clearly displays the evils of totalitarianism. Readers are shocked to discover that such a seemingly perfect world has turned out to be a nightmare. Although Brave New World is only a fictional novel written more than half a century ago, it is frightening to see that, one by one, Huxley¡¦s horrific predictions are becoming acceptable realities. This novel was written with the intention of giving readers a glimpse of a possible outcome for the future of humanity. According to Ford, ¡§History is bunk¡¨; meaning that it is futile to review events that have already taken place; instead, Ford encourages citizens to press on without looking back (Arid, 51). By creating the totalitarian ¡§utopia¡¨, Huxley is not only warning readers about potential errors that can be made in the future, but also of those errors that were made in the past.

Please note that this sample paper on Brave New World and World State's Motto is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Brave New World and World State's Motto, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Brave New World and World State's Motto will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The Wife of Bath , character analysis

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CHARACTER ANALYSIS OF THE WIFE OF BATH

In my opinion , the character of the Wife of bath is one of the most interesting ones out of all the characters in Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales'. Before we analyse her strong , visual and stereotypical character that is portrayed to us , I think it's important to know the role of men and women in Chaucerian times , their position in society and the relationships of married couples. Since the very beginning of society , the trend has been for the male character in a relationship to be the strong , dominant and authorative force . Their control over women was an ever present feature amongst married couples . A women's role in society during Chaucerian times was very contrasting to what it is now . Men made all the decisions , possessed control and authority over their wives and considered them as possessions ; a mere tool which could be used in any way that pleased them and disposed off when they like .Such was the power of men at the time that the women , stranded in a helpless and futile position would live their lives not the way they wanted but the way their husbands' decided . Hence the role of women could be regarded as that of an obedient , faithful wife . Their position in society was quite simple. Their job was to remain at home , taking care of the family and the house while the men were out working during the daytime and socializing and spending time with friends during the evenings , as was often the case . Any sort of social activity or contact with the external world would not be permitted by the men . A woman undermining the husbands' authority in any way would result in a violent and angry reaction from the latter . Hence the liberty and rights of a woman were minimal at the time . However one of the female characters at this time was the Wife of Bath who undermines the authority of men and presents the image of a stereotypical and antifeminist character . Her frightening power over men treats men in much the same way as women have been treated . This suddenly alarming shift in power of a woman was unheard of and for that reason , I regard the wife of Bath as one of the most interesting characters of the time . Living in a society in which men and the Church were the two dominant forces and power was symbolized by the two , the ideas , expressions and attitude of the Wife of bath would be clearly unacceptable . Thus , her status as a rebel is justified .

The character of the wife of bath is presented to us as a bold , attractive , and authorative character who's rebellion against society , traditional values , men and the church leave us in complete awe .

Taking marriage as her main topic of conversation , the Wife cites scriptural authority, appeals to logic, and mainly presents her tale by describing her experiences through five marriages to prove that she is an authority on marriage. She is a clever and cunning woman who announces her theme as 'marriage is a misery and a woe' . By launching this attack on traditional and long existing ideas ( at the time marriage was always considered a wonderful thing ; a religious event ) , she already indicates her rebellious nature . She also develops the theme sovereignty in marriage. In both, she attempts to prove that if the wife has the authority in a marriage, both husband and wife will live in bliss and joy . The courage and authority with which the wife of bath stands up for a woman's rights is quite remarkable . Her rebellion can be seen as a mere expression of her frustration at the way woman are made the scapegoats and treated as possessions and the need to alter these ancient ideas where women are powerless . This open and liberal manner of speaking is demonstrated once again when she rejects the ruling class and authority in favour of experience . Firstly , she criticizes the Bible by attacking St Jerome and stating that she rejects the ideas that

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· that since Christ went to only one wedding, at Cana, no one should marry more than once.

· that when Christ said to the Samaritan, that same man that you have now is not your husband, he implies that where there are more marriages than one, a true husband does not exist.

This attack on biblical work is considered as a major act of rebellion because it is unthinkable and intolerable to question or doubt anything written in the Bible. Another rebellious aspect of the Wife of Bath's character is that she clearly ignores the sacramental aspect of marriage . The sacrament(spirit) of marriage is an indication of the relationship between Christ and the Church which makes a model for the relationship between husband and wife in Christian marriage. The Wife tries to deny the sacramental character of marriage because this is the basis of the argument that men and women should marry only once, which is precisely what she's trying to disprove. When the wife denies the argument that Christs attendance at one wedding is an indication that a person should marry only once, she not only implies that she disregards the sacrament or spirit of marriage, but also indicates a preference on her own part for the laws of the first five ages, for the oldness of the letter,, etc . Hence not only does she reject the sacrament of marriage but puts forward her own laws as though she is the ruling and dominant class and she is the one to decide the laws . This is the greatest act of rebellion so far by the wife of bath as she questions this aspect of marriage and the relationship between Christ and the church . At this stage we feel that the wife of bath is a negative character because of her attitude towards the church , men and Christ and her denial of Christian values . However as we read on , we realize that she is an independent , intelligent and courageous woman who is fighting for a woman's rights and is trying to present to us the makings of a successful marriage .

The wife of bath's experience plays a major role too . She has had a large amount of experience of the world . Not only has she literally traveled a lot round the world , but she has experienced the ways of the world (this is mainly referring to love and sex) . She knows that by using her body as a sort of tool which can be used for sexual pleasure for men , she can gain control over them and that is her main objective . It also explains partly why she has had five husbands . At the time , the thought of having had five husbands would be preposterous but the wife of bath discusses her previous husbands with the utmost candid and frankness. Sex is an issue discussed very openly by the wife of bath . At the time this issue would clearly be regarded as astonishing and shocking . The liberalness with which she discusses this is quite amazing at times . Her opinion is that the 'generative organs' were made for 'both use and pleasure .' From one point of view , we admire her courage to bring up such a major point of conflict and argue for it because at the time , sex was a topic which was rarely discussed openly . Having the audacity to bring it up makes us look up to this character and admire her . However at the same time , this opinion of the wife of bath's was met with strong opposition , primly from the church and as we known , any act of rebellion against the teachings of the church were considered wrong and immoral .

As is often the case with rebels , they possess a very different and distinct physical appearance which singles them out from the rest of society and causes particular focus and attention on them . The same is the case with the wife of bath . Her rather tasteful , fine , rich yet extravagant style of clothing distinguishes her from most women in society. The new leather on her shoes , the scarlet coloured stockings all indicate a sign of expensive clothing . Leather and scarlet both represented wealth , richness , along with style . This clearly makes her an outsider . Another factor that is very common amongst rebels is that their rebellious natured character is often largely associated with their background and upbringing . The wife of bath's whole life has been a battleground between contrary influences. She was born under the influence of both Venus and Mars; Venus makes her attractive, sensual, and feminine, while Mars makes her bold, rebellious . We can see these influences at work when, even as she states her theme as being the woes in marriage, she is looking for her sixth husband .

One of the most notable attributes of this female rebel's character is her unbelievable sexual energy . The power of this sexual energy is so immense that it has the ability to seduce and manipulate men . This would be achieved by teasing and having sexual intercourse with men in bed and refusing to give them complete satisfaction until she would receive money . Control is the main thing she gained from doing this and it made the wife of bath feel superior , giving her great pleasure and delight . During Chaucerian times , it would be the men who would be in the superior position and the women would be forced to obey them . However , it's a very contrasting scenario here in which the man is made to obey every command and every wish of the woman and plays the role of an obedient man while the woman plays the role of an omnipotent character . As mentioned before , her main idea is that all women need to be the ruling bodies in marriage . Sovereignty of women is the basis of a successful marriage . This point has been emphasised time after time in the tale Her attempt to alter the roles of men and women in a marriage , and provide women with greater power and sovereignty is what establishes her position as a rebel . A rebel is somebody who has a contrasting view and tries to persuade the society to follow their views and ideas and that is precisely what the wife of bath does .

In conclusion , the wife of bath fits the description of a rebel , trying to alter the ideas society and she attempts to show what women want is power and sovereignty , rather then the man being the ruling and dominant force in a marriage .The immense desire for the power of women to be in the ascendancy is evident. Her ideas are in favour of women and appear much more modern then the rest of society . Also her different perspective of how women should be treated makes her speak openly and liberally with immense game and courage . Her open conversations and opposition towards delicate issues such as sex , virginity and Christian teachings marked her as a true rebel . Her attack on the church , biblical works , beliefs and her rejection of the idea of only one marriage display a whole new dimension and perspective of a woman's character since questioning and doubting traditions wasn't a feature of a typical woman's character at the time . Finally , she stands up for a woman's rights and symbolizes what a woman wants through her control over men (which she often gains by men wanting sex from her ) and she models the character of a rebellious woman searching for control .

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