Brave New World and World State's Motto

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Humans have always wanted to achieve a utopia, an ideal world where everyone is happy, without any worries or concerns. In Brave New World, Huxley vividly portrays a futuristic society where people are all uniformly ¡§satisfied¡¨ with all that they have ever wanted or had. However, their happiness is meaningless since it is conditioned by the powerful absolute rule of the government. Totalitarianism is the ultimate control of an elite group over the masses. Huxley satirizes the idea of authoritative rules, by effectively portraying the evils of totalitarianism, and this can be seen particularly through the World State¡¦s motto ¡§Community, Identity, Stability¡¨.

Primarily, the government of World State gains control of its citizens through promoting the notion of a ¡¥community¡¦. In World State, solidarity is achieved through sports, sex, and other forms of entertainment. Unlike the sports in present day society, sports in this new world are always designed to be simplistic games that do not involve intellectual thinking. The Centrifugal Bumblepuppy is a typical example of the primitive sports played in World State. This game is not any different from nineholes, a game of the past in which marbles are rolled into holes, except that it utilizes much more elaborate apparatus such as the ¡§chrome-steel tower¡¨ and a ¡§rapidly revolving disk¡¨ (Huxley, 5). Though sports like Centrifugal Bumblepuppy are much more technologically advanced in their appearance, the principals behind these games are still extremely basic. None of the games requires ¡§more apparatus than a ball or a few sticks and perhaps a bit of netting¡¨ (Huxley, 5). By getting everyone involved in these artless sports, the State is able to prevent its people from spending time alone. Consequently, they cannot engage in any self-reflection ¡V a dangerous activity considered to lead one to separate him/herself from the community. In addition to sports, promiscuity is also highly promoted for its ability to unite people. Children of World State learn to play rudimentary sexual games at their leisure; adults are expected to practice sex on a regular basis with different people as well. World State demands its people to be bigamous so that personal romances, which can lead to deep passion, will not occur. When Lenina, a Beta woman, confides to her friend, Fanny, that she has been going out with Henry Foster, an Alpha, for four months without dating another man, Fanny warns her to be ¡§a little more promiscuous¡¨ as the ¡§D.H.C. objects to anything intense or long drawn¡¨ (Huxley, 4). After all, ¡§everyone belongs to everyone else¡¨ (Huxley, 47). Other than sports and sex, there are also different types of entertainment available in World State. One of them would be dancing in a cabaret. The people who attend these occasions dance in unison with the synthetic music. Songs played in the cabaret are all a part of the government¡¦s tactics to regulate its people to feel as if they were part of the community. For example, the lyrics of ¡§Bottle of Mine¡¨ strongly convey the notion that people are safely inside the comfort of the ¡§bottled¡¨ State. Consequently, they should all enjoy being a part of the World State and being a part of the community. Furthermore, World State disapproves of anyone being alone. When Fanny is ill and cannot engage into her ¡¥usual routine¡¦ with men, she spends her evening playing Musical Bridge (Huxley, 4). Once she knows that she will not have the accompaniment of men, it is almost an impulse for her to find a replacement activity. From this example, one can see that whether it is sports, sex, or other forms of entertainment, people in World State are obligated to occupy themselves with activities to be a part of the community. With this ideal in mind, it is not difficult to see why they can never learn the true meaning of individuality.

Identity is the second cardinal feature in World State¡¦s motto. Its meaning can be ambiguous. While it signifies ¡§absolute sameness¡¨, it can also be interpreted as who somebody or what something is, which, in essence means the characteristics that differentiate one person/object from another. In World State, people are identical because they are all laboratory-grown clones that are bottled and standardized from hatchery. However, the Predestinators, a government bureau, decide a prospective citizen¡¦s role in the hierarchy. Ranging from the most intelligent to the most moronic caste, there are the Alphas, Betas, Gamas, Deltas, and Epsilons. The intelligence of each caste member is predestined by pumping blood surrogate into the embryo bottles in which he/she is concealed. The blood surrogate given at different lengths of interval in the lungs determines the amount of oxygen the embryo receives. The lesser the oxygen, the more moronic the embryo gets, and consequently, the lower its caste in the society (Huxley, ). When these embryos develop into life form, they are conditioned mainly through hypnopaedia and the Neo-Pavlovian Process. One lesson that is taught by hypnopaedia is Elementary Class Consciousness. Through sleep teaching, Beta children learn to be happy because they don¡¦t have to work as hard as the ¡§frightfully intelligent¡¨ Alphas and because they are smarter than the others; Deltas are dull and Epsilons are too ignorant to be happy (Huxley, ). The State¡¦s suggestions of morals are repeated numerous times in Betas¡¦ sleep until ¡§at last the child¡¦s mind is these suggestions¡¨ (Huxley, 4). The second means of conditioning is done using the Neo-Pavlovian Process. From their early childhood, members of the society are trained to like or hate certain aspects of life, nature, and science. Delta babies are given flowers and books, but are then electrically shocked so that they will later develop an ¡¥instinctive¡¦ hatred of books and flowers. Consequently, they will never risk reading something which might undesirably decondition one of their reflexes and in the meantime, hate nature because it increases transport consumption (Huxley, ). Through the use of hypnopaedia and the Neo-Pavlovian process, the government succeeds to limit the mental freedom of its people. Citizens of World State are suppressed from choosing what they want or like for themselves and are always bound by the instructions of the State. As a result of conditioning, everyone loses his/her identity and individuality. Nevertheless, there are the exceptions of those who are defective since their decanting. They are represented by Bernard Marx and Helmholtz Watson. Unlike his associates, Bernard does not enjoy sports, and he prefers to be alone rather than to be in a crowd. Moreover, he questions the conformity of life in World State and the values his society teaches. Consequently, he is deported to Iceland because of his rebellious thinking and lifestyle. Likewise, Helmholtz Watson is also a defective product from the hatchery. He is intellectually, socially, and physically more superior than his fellow Alpha-Pluses. Because of the excessive abilities he possesses, Helmholtz becomes dissatisfied with the uniformity that the State promotes. He believes that there must be more to life than mere physical existence. Therefore, he too is banished from the State. Through the cases of Bernard Marx and Helmholtz Watson, readers can see that people who claim individuality and identity are mistreated. Because they violate the principles of technology and artificial personalities, they must be sent away so that they will not contaminate or disrupt other healthy members of the society. Obviously, what World State promotes is ¡§absolute sameness¡¨ in order to maintain social stability; thus, it eliminates those who strive for individual identities.

Lastly, social stability is the product of community and identity. It is what leads to happiness. In order to attain social stability, scientific progress is frozen. The State does not ¡§allow [science] to deal with any but the most immediate problems of the moment¡¨ because truth and beauty cannot ¡§keep the wheels steadily turning¡¨ (Huxley, 18). As well, subversive works of literature are also banned for the sake of stability. A typical example of brilliant creativity and inventions that are being censored in Brave New World can be found when Mustapha Mond, the World Controller of Western Europe, comes across a paper called ¡¥A New Theory of Biology¡¦. Though he finds ¡§the author¡¦s mathematical treatment of the conception of purpose is novel and highly ingenious, but [it is] heretical, and so far as the present social order is concerned, dangerous and potentially subversive¡¨; therefore, it must be banished (Huxley, 14). The writer of this paper will also have to be placed under careful supervision in order to ensure that he/she will not become a part of the subversive force of World State. Free flowing of ideas and criticisms, in the form of scientific truth and artistic beauty, is constrained; hence, freedom of thought and speech is also eliminated. ¡§Ford¡¨ takes the place of ¡§Lord¡¨ in the New World, for God now ¡§manifests himself as an absence¡¨ (Huxley, 14). There is no need for spiritual meditation anymore because when people feel depressed or unhappy, they can consume a hallucinogenic drug called soma. As Mustapha Mond describes, soma is ¡§Christianity without tears¡¨ (Huxley, 10). It makes people content without causing the sadness and guilt of Christianity. Though citizens of World State rely heavily on the consumption of soma to ¡§calm [their] anger, to reconcile [themselves] to [their] enemies, to make [them] patient and long-suffering¡¨, it dulls their senses and destroys their sense of urgency and desire for action. People like Linda, who intake large amounts of soma, shorten their lives as a result of it. Soma is a false form of happiness produced by the State. It provides a means of vacuous escapism that makes people comfortable with their lack of freedom in the society. Thus, they conform to the absolute ruling of the totalitarian State. While Linda is a representative of a successful product of World State¡¦s manipulation, John the Savage, symbolizes innocence and purity of life. His highly Christian beliefs about God and what is right and wrong contrast sharply with the values of the citizens of the New World ¡§God isn¡¦t compatible with machinery and scientific medicine and universal happiness¡¨ (Huxley, 188). Knowledge and wisdom, represented by truth and faith in God, are powerful qualities; yet, they are restricted to the minimum, for men are only valued for their physical existence. Knowing that the State gets rid of ¡§everything unpleasant instead of learning to put up with it¡¨, John exclaims his need for God, poetry, real danger, freedom, goodness, and sin (Huxley, 1). In the end, he becomes the ultimate victim of powerful totalitarian state. Mustapha Mond does not let John join his friends, Bernard Marx and Helmholtz Watson in exile, and thereby, retrieves his freedom. John¡¦s guilt toward ¡§his own murderous unkindness to [Linda]¡¨ causes him to whip himself as a form of his grief and repentance (Huxley, 17). Finally, with Lenina¡¦s arrival and the crowd¡¦s roar for a whipping, John turns his hatred toward the people of the new world inward upon himself, and ends his life by suicide. John¡¦s faith in believing purity and individuality make him susceptible in the impersonal new world. His tragic end frightfully illustrates the victory of temporary happiness and comfort over personal values and liberty. Freedom no longer holds any significance in striving for stability. Thus, people in World State are forever enslaved in the realm of controlled community and lost identities.

World State¡¦s motto, ¡§Community, Identity, Stability¡¨ clearly displays the evils of totalitarianism. Readers are shocked to discover that such a seemingly perfect world has turned out to be a nightmare. Although Brave New World is only a fictional novel written more than half a century ago, it is frightening to see that, one by one, Huxley¡¦s horrific predictions are becoming acceptable realities. This novel was written with the intention of giving readers a glimpse of a possible outcome for the future of humanity. According to Ford, ¡§History is bunk¡¨; meaning that it is futile to review events that have already taken place; instead, Ford encourages citizens to press on without looking back (Arid, 51). By creating the totalitarian ¡§utopia¡¨, Huxley is not only warning readers about potential errors that can be made in the future, but also of those errors that were made in the past.

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The Wife of Bath , character analysis

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CHARACTER ANALYSIS OF THE WIFE OF BATH

In my opinion , the character of the Wife of bath is one of the most interesting ones out of all the characters in Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales'. Before we analyse her strong , visual and stereotypical character that is portrayed to us , I think it's important to know the role of men and women in Chaucerian times , their position in society and the relationships of married couples. Since the very beginning of society , the trend has been for the male character in a relationship to be the strong , dominant and authorative force . Their control over women was an ever present feature amongst married couples . A women's role in society during Chaucerian times was very contrasting to what it is now . Men made all the decisions , possessed control and authority over their wives and considered them as possessions ; a mere tool which could be used in any way that pleased them and disposed off when they like .Such was the power of men at the time that the women , stranded in a helpless and futile position would live their lives not the way they wanted but the way their husbands' decided . Hence the role of women could be regarded as that of an obedient , faithful wife . Their position in society was quite simple. Their job was to remain at home , taking care of the family and the house while the men were out working during the daytime and socializing and spending time with friends during the evenings , as was often the case . Any sort of social activity or contact with the external world would not be permitted by the men . A woman undermining the husbands' authority in any way would result in a violent and angry reaction from the latter . Hence the liberty and rights of a woman were minimal at the time . However one of the female characters at this time was the Wife of Bath who undermines the authority of men and presents the image of a stereotypical and antifeminist character . Her frightening power over men treats men in much the same way as women have been treated . This suddenly alarming shift in power of a woman was unheard of and for that reason , I regard the wife of Bath as one of the most interesting characters of the time . Living in a society in which men and the Church were the two dominant forces and power was symbolized by the two , the ideas , expressions and attitude of the Wife of bath would be clearly unacceptable . Thus , her status as a rebel is justified .

The character of the wife of bath is presented to us as a bold , attractive , and authorative character who's rebellion against society , traditional values , men and the church leave us in complete awe .

Taking marriage as her main topic of conversation , the Wife cites scriptural authority, appeals to logic, and mainly presents her tale by describing her experiences through five marriages to prove that she is an authority on marriage. She is a clever and cunning woman who announces her theme as 'marriage is a misery and a woe' . By launching this attack on traditional and long existing ideas ( at the time marriage was always considered a wonderful thing ; a religious event ) , she already indicates her rebellious nature . She also develops the theme sovereignty in marriage. In both, she attempts to prove that if the wife has the authority in a marriage, both husband and wife will live in bliss and joy . The courage and authority with which the wife of bath stands up for a woman's rights is quite remarkable . Her rebellion can be seen as a mere expression of her frustration at the way woman are made the scapegoats and treated as possessions and the need to alter these ancient ideas where women are powerless . This open and liberal manner of speaking is demonstrated once again when she rejects the ruling class and authority in favour of experience . Firstly , she criticizes the Bible by attacking St Jerome and stating that she rejects the ideas that

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· that since Christ went to only one wedding, at Cana, no one should marry more than once.

· that when Christ said to the Samaritan, that same man that you have now is not your husband, he implies that where there are more marriages than one, a true husband does not exist.

This attack on biblical work is considered as a major act of rebellion because it is unthinkable and intolerable to question or doubt anything written in the Bible. Another rebellious aspect of the Wife of Bath's character is that she clearly ignores the sacramental aspect of marriage . The sacrament(spirit) of marriage is an indication of the relationship between Christ and the Church which makes a model for the relationship between husband and wife in Christian marriage. The Wife tries to deny the sacramental character of marriage because this is the basis of the argument that men and women should marry only once, which is precisely what she's trying to disprove. When the wife denies the argument that Christs attendance at one wedding is an indication that a person should marry only once, she not only implies that she disregards the sacrament or spirit of marriage, but also indicates a preference on her own part for the laws of the first five ages, for the oldness of the letter,, etc . Hence not only does she reject the sacrament of marriage but puts forward her own laws as though she is the ruling and dominant class and she is the one to decide the laws . This is the greatest act of rebellion so far by the wife of bath as she questions this aspect of marriage and the relationship between Christ and the church . At this stage we feel that the wife of bath is a negative character because of her attitude towards the church , men and Christ and her denial of Christian values . However as we read on , we realize that she is an independent , intelligent and courageous woman who is fighting for a woman's rights and is trying to present to us the makings of a successful marriage .

The wife of bath's experience plays a major role too . She has had a large amount of experience of the world . Not only has she literally traveled a lot round the world , but she has experienced the ways of the world (this is mainly referring to love and sex) . She knows that by using her body as a sort of tool which can be used for sexual pleasure for men , she can gain control over them and that is her main objective . It also explains partly why she has had five husbands . At the time , the thought of having had five husbands would be preposterous but the wife of bath discusses her previous husbands with the utmost candid and frankness. Sex is an issue discussed very openly by the wife of bath . At the time this issue would clearly be regarded as astonishing and shocking . The liberalness with which she discusses this is quite amazing at times . Her opinion is that the 'generative organs' were made for 'both use and pleasure .' From one point of view , we admire her courage to bring up such a major point of conflict and argue for it because at the time , sex was a topic which was rarely discussed openly . Having the audacity to bring it up makes us look up to this character and admire her . However at the same time , this opinion of the wife of bath's was met with strong opposition , primly from the church and as we known , any act of rebellion against the teachings of the church were considered wrong and immoral .

As is often the case with rebels , they possess a very different and distinct physical appearance which singles them out from the rest of society and causes particular focus and attention on them . The same is the case with the wife of bath . Her rather tasteful , fine , rich yet extravagant style of clothing distinguishes her from most women in society. The new leather on her shoes , the scarlet coloured stockings all indicate a sign of expensive clothing . Leather and scarlet both represented wealth , richness , along with style . This clearly makes her an outsider . Another factor that is very common amongst rebels is that their rebellious natured character is often largely associated with their background and upbringing . The wife of bath's whole life has been a battleground between contrary influences. She was born under the influence of both Venus and Mars; Venus makes her attractive, sensual, and feminine, while Mars makes her bold, rebellious . We can see these influences at work when, even as she states her theme as being the woes in marriage, she is looking for her sixth husband .

One of the most notable attributes of this female rebel's character is her unbelievable sexual energy . The power of this sexual energy is so immense that it has the ability to seduce and manipulate men . This would be achieved by teasing and having sexual intercourse with men in bed and refusing to give them complete satisfaction until she would receive money . Control is the main thing she gained from doing this and it made the wife of bath feel superior , giving her great pleasure and delight . During Chaucerian times , it would be the men who would be in the superior position and the women would be forced to obey them . However , it's a very contrasting scenario here in which the man is made to obey every command and every wish of the woman and plays the role of an obedient man while the woman plays the role of an omnipotent character . As mentioned before , her main idea is that all women need to be the ruling bodies in marriage . Sovereignty of women is the basis of a successful marriage . This point has been emphasised time after time in the tale Her attempt to alter the roles of men and women in a marriage , and provide women with greater power and sovereignty is what establishes her position as a rebel . A rebel is somebody who has a contrasting view and tries to persuade the society to follow their views and ideas and that is precisely what the wife of bath does .

In conclusion , the wife of bath fits the description of a rebel , trying to alter the ideas society and she attempts to show what women want is power and sovereignty , rather then the man being the ruling and dominant force in a marriage .The immense desire for the power of women to be in the ascendancy is evident. Her ideas are in favour of women and appear much more modern then the rest of society . Also her different perspective of how women should be treated makes her speak openly and liberally with immense game and courage . Her open conversations and opposition towards delicate issues such as sex , virginity and Christian teachings marked her as a true rebel . Her attack on the church , biblical works , beliefs and her rejection of the idea of only one marriage display a whole new dimension and perspective of a woman's character since questioning and doubting traditions wasn't a feature of a typical woman's character at the time . Finally , she stands up for a woman's rights and symbolizes what a woman wants through her control over men (which she often gains by men wanting sex from her ) and she models the character of a rebellious woman searching for control .

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Issues in Adolescence

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Issues in Adolescence

Abstract

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There are many topics to choose from when researching adolescence. There are three particular topics that I have done some in depth research of pertaining to adolescence. These topics are as follows homosexuality, eating disorders, and peer pressure. Upon doing my research I found that although adolescents are faced with many different problems, these three tend to have a major impact on self-esteem. This issue is one of importance to me as I suffered from very poor self-esteem throughout my adolescence and am just now beginning to overcome it. Upon researching these subjects, I came to the conclusion that the majority of my own self-esteem issues stemmed from issues of peer pressure and negative body image. You will see in my discussion of these topics how they can relate to self-esteem issues in adolescence.

Sexuality in today's society is viewed mostly as being exclusively heterosexual or homosexual in nature. To adolescence, this can sometimes be confusing as there is much adolescence that has the urge to experiment with a same sex relationship although they have heterosexual leanings. Experimentation throughout adolescence is perfectly normal and in all honesty, expected. Although adult's homosexuality has been studied to a great extent, there is not a wealth of information regarding adolescent homosexuality. For the typical homosexual, adolescence is the time of "coming out" (Santrock, 001). This coming out process is one that can put a ton of emotional stress on the adolescent that is considering doing so. There are many people (that because of the stigma that society has attached to being homosexual) will repress their natural feelings and desires and will avoid their sexuality by claiming "straightness" and attractions to the opposite sex to their friends (Santrock, 001). Another huge concern among homosexual adolescence is parental acceptance. "…studies report that gay and lesbian youth who are rejected by their parents experience an array of emotional, psychosocial, and health-related problems." (Armesto, Weisman, 001) There are also many situations where when the parents reject the sexuality of their child, not only does the child face rejection from the parents, but they are also kicked out of their homes and essentially are required to start a new life on their own. This behavior has been found to "…increase risks of delinquent and other maladaptive behaviors."(Armesto, Weisman, 001). This occurs because the child was forced to leave prematurely before they were ready to deal with the world on their own. In terms of homosexuality wearing on an adolescence self-esteem, it is easy to see how they can tend to view themselves as "bad", or "not acceptable" when society has such a negative attitude towards this type of lifestyle to the extent that one's own friends and parents won't even accept them for who they are so they are forced to hide it and pretend to be something that they are not.

When most people think of adolescents having eating disorders, they think of a "cheerleader" type girl who either starves herself or throws-up after consuming every meal. Well, not only do eating disorders run the gamut from obesity to anorexia nervosa, they affect both male and female adolescents. "…adolescence is characterized by a marked increase in eating disorder symptoms, and these symptoms may develop into serious eating disorders in adulthood. Cross-sectional surveys find moderate rates of anorexia nervosa (AN) (0.5%-1.0%) and bulimia nervosa (BN) (1%-%) (American Psychiatric Association, 14; Hsu 16; Ratsam et al., 18) but find considerably higher rates that do not meet the full criteria for AN or BN and are categorized in DSM-IV as "eating disorder not otherwise specified". (Cohen et al., 001) AN is predominately seen in females during their adolescence and young adulthood. This disease begins with a distorted body image and gradually progresses until the individual is obsessed with the losing weight and no matter what the scale says, they are never satisfied. A question that comes to mind about the negative body image is where does the "right" body image come from? As a society that is obsessed with being the best and looking the best, is it any wonder that adolescence are turning to starvation and vomiting in order to appear like those celebrities that we hold in such admiration? While AN is primarily a female disorder, there have been cases of males becoming anorexic. Now, like AN, bulimia is also associated with females. It (BN) is "…prevalent among college women. Some estimates indicate that as many as one in two college women binge and purge at least some of the time."(Santrock, 001). The biggest difference between these two diseases is that anorexics have control over their eating whereas bulimics do not. Now we will go from losing weight to the opposite end of the spectrum; obesity. "…5 percent of today's adolescents are obese." (Santrock, 001). Yes, there is a genetic factor to obesity, sometimes. There can be an inherited trait for gaining weight, but there are also environmental factors to consider. Many adolescents overeat out of loneliness, boredom, anger, etc. "Eating disorders may represent a way of coping with problems of identity and personal control."(Herman, Polivy, 00). There is also the added fact of Americans eating diets high in saturated fat and not getting enough exercise. Adolescents today are far less physically active than their counterparts of even just five years ago. Much of this has to do with video games and computers. Teens will lose themselves in these media forms instead of having friends and playing a game of basketball and going for a jog. Thus, we can once again see the relationship of this issue (eating disorders) on the issue of self-esteem.

The third issue that I would like to discuss is that of peer pressure. "As children move into adolescence, they acquire more social knowledge, and there is considerable individual variation in how much one adolescent knows about what it takes to make friends, to get peers to like him or her, and so forth."(Santrock, 001) Peer relations are extremely important to teens, perhaps the most important relationship to them at this point in their lives. Acceptance is an extremely important goal that all adolescents are looking to meet in one way or another. Depending on the group to which on has desired acceptance, there could be different ways to go about getting into these groups. For instance, to be a part of the "jock group", usually all one needs is strong athletic ability, but for less obvious groups such as social groups there may be different criteria for attaining acceptance. This is where peer pressure can come into play. For instance, in the movie "A Walk to Remember" in order for one teen to gain acceptance into the group of popular kids, he was pressured into jumping into a quarry from a significant height. He did this willingly after being guaranteed acceptance into the group, he also was severely injured. Not all acceptance criteria are as sever as this. There are some high schools that have "secret" sororities where acceptance is completing "Hell Week" which consists of no make-up, same clothes everyday, etc. for an entire week. Perhaps some groups would require presence at an unsupervised party where there would be drinking, drugs, etc. in order to become "one of them".

"A key peer factor that has been linked with antisocial and risk- taking behavior in adolescence and early adulthood is adolescent involvement with deviant peers. Strong evidence exists to suggest that adolescents who socialize and form friendships with deviant peers are at increased risk of developing a wide range of psychosocial adjustment problems, including conduct problems, substance use, criminal offending, school failure, teenage pregnancy, and the formation of intimate relationships with deviant partners."(Fergusson, et al., 1)

To tie everything together that was discussed, not only is growing up hard enough to do, but when the pressures of sexuality and social/parental acceptance, body image, and being accepted by peer groups comes into play, the awkwardness of being an adolescent coupled with self-esteem issues makes for a very tumultuous time.

References

Armesto, Jorge C., Weisman, Amy G., (001). Attributions and Emotional Reactions to the Identity Disclosure ("Coming Out") of a Homosexual Child. Family Process, (18).

Diamond, Lisa M., Savin-Williams, Ritch C., (000). Explaining Diversity in the Development of Same-Sex Sexuality Among Young Women. Journal of Social Issues, (15).

Lock, James, Steiner, Hans, (1). Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youth Risks for Emotional, Physical, and Social problems Results from a Community Based Survey. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, (11).

Johnson, Cheri C., Johnson, Kirk A., (000). High Risk Behavior Among Gay Adolescents Implicaitons for Treatment and Support. Adolescence, (16).

Santrock, John W. (001). Adolescence. New York, NY McGraw-Hill. ()

References

Bryant-Waugh, Rache, Lask, Bryan, (000). Anorexia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence. New York, NY Psychology PR, nd Edition. (4).

Carlin, J.B., Coffey, C., Patton, G.C., Selzer, R., Wolfe, R. (1). Onset of Adolescent Eating Disorders Population Based Cohort Study over Years. British Medical Journal, (8).

Cohen, Patricia, Davies, Mark, Kotler, Lisa A., Pine, Daniel S., Walsh, Timothy (001). Longitudinal Relationships Between Childhood, Adolescent, and Adult Eating Disorders. (Statistical Data Included). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, ().

French, Simone, Newmark-Sztainer, Dianne, (00). Individual and Environmental Influences on Adolescent Eating Behaviors. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, (6).

Herman, C. Peter, Polivy, Janet, (00). Causes of Eating Disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, (6).

Pryor, Tamara, Wiederman, Michael W., (18). Personality Features and Expressed Concerns of Adolescents with Eating Disorders. Adolescence, (7).

Santrock, John W. (001). Adolescence. New York, NY McGraw-Hill. ()

References

Curran, Patrick J., Dodge, Kenneth A., Kaplow, Julie B., (00). Child, Parent, and Peer Predictors of Early-onset Substance use a Multi-site Longitudinal Study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, (4).

Fergusson, David M., Horwood, L. John, Woodward, Lianne J., (1). Childhood Peer Realtionship Problems and Young People's Involvement with Deviant Peers in Adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, (1).

Ladd, Gary W., (1). Peer Relationships and Social Competence During Early and Middle Childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, (4).

Santrock, John W. (001). Adolescence. New York, NY McGraw-Hill. ()

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The Role and Attributes of Managers

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Discuss the role of the manager in successful organisations and consider the required attributes and qualities for a successful manager.

It is a well-known fact that the world was and still is full of organisations; they play a significant and continuing role in our lives. It is true that organisations can vary in size, structure, resources, personnel, and purposes, but they do have some things in common. They consist of two or more people who work together toward some common goal. The objective of an organisation is to provide goods and services to its members or to others outside the organisation. In order to achieve that effectively, all organisations have to follow a plan and try to acquire the necessary recourses. It is here where the practice of management takes effect.

Management relates to all the activities of the organisation and is undertaken at all levels. It is by the process of management and the execution of work that the activities of the organisation are carried out. Management cannot easily be defined and it is subject to many interpretations. However it can be said that management is the practice of consciously and continually shaping organisations. Consequently, management should always be considered within an organisational context and environment. It is the process of setting and achieving goals through the execution of five basic management functions that utilize human, financial, and material recourses. According to Henri Fayol, these functions are

Planning planning identifies the goals and objectives of the organisation and sets a plan of action for achieving those goals. This plan is the guide by which (1) the organisation obtains and commits the resources required to reach its objectives; () the number and types of personnel the organisation needs is identified; () the organisational environment in which the work is to be done starts to form and the members of the organisation carry on their activities; (4) progress toward the objectives is monitored and measured so that corrections can be made if necessary.

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There are several goals that need to be established, for each of the organisations sub-units. When these are determined, programs are established for the goals in a systematic manner. The length of time and the scope of the planning vary according to the level of management planning. Plans made by top management may cover periods as long as five or ten years. At lower levels of management, plans span over much shorter periods such as one day or even a few hours.

Organising organising is the process of arranging and allocating work, authority, and resources among the members of the organisation so they can carry out the activities of the organisation and eventually achieve the organisation's objectives. Managers have the responsibility to create a structure made out of divisions and departments that have different duties depending on the different goals. This process is called organisational design. When the objectives of the organisation change, the structure of the organisation changes too.

Directing directing involves influencing and motivating the members of the organisation to perform essential tasks so as to achieve its objectives. Directing provides leadership and gives the opportunity for motivation. Each employee should be encouraged to participate in the decision-making process. Communication between the manager and the employees is the key for creating a proper environment for the employees to work in. In this way, managers help their employees to do their best.

Co-ordination co-ordination is the process of unifying and harmonising all the activities of an organisation so as to ensure its success. It was mentioned before that each department of the organisation has different duties. The departments may be independent from each other, however they need to work together in harmony to succeed; this can be done with the help of the manager.

Control controlling is all about verifying that the actions of the organisation's members occur in accordance with the plans, instructions, and the established standards of performance. A manager should attempt to prevent problems, or to try to determine and solve them as soon as possible, if they happen to occur. Through constant control, the manager keeps the organisation working effectively.

As it can be seen, managers are required to be able to plan, organise, direct, co-ordinate and control. By examining these functions carefully a number of specific roles, such as interpersonal roles, informational roles and decisional roles that managers should fill at various times can be identified. Fig.1

Fig.1 The manager's roles

The figurehead role is one of the most basic, yet simple roles of a manager. The manager is a symbol so he has to represent the organisation in matters of formality; that is he must routinely perform certain ceremonial duties.

He has the leadership role; he has to create the right environment so as to improve employees' performances, to try and reduce conflict and handle disagreements wisely. He has to act with fairness and impartiality. As he is also responsible for his subordinates' work he should make sure that hey are effective as well as efficient. He should reward them if they are successful in their work, or on the contrary to not hesitate to dismiss them if he finds their performance unsatisfactory.

Another role of the manager is to act as a liaison between his unit and the organisation or between the organisation and the outside environment.

The performance of the monitor role can help the manager to develop an understanding of the working of the organisation and its environment. The manager should constantly monitor the environment he is in, by seeking and receiving information so as to determine if everything is going according to plan. He can collect his information both directly, by asking questions, and indirectly, through unsolicited information.

Disseminator role; as a disseminator, the manager passes the external and internal information collected to the organisation and to its subordinates. If the manager fails in transmitting the information or transmits them wrongly, this can cause problems to the organisation.

The manager is the one who also holds the spokesperson role. He is the person who represents and speaks for his unit to people outside the unit; these might be his superiors, or even the general public.

The entrepreneurial role is the manager's function to take advantage of certain opportunities and initiate activities that will improve the existing situation of the organisation.

The manager has the resource allocator role. He is responsible for the correct distribution of the resources amongst the employers. These resources include money, facilities, and equipment. He also decides the programming of work and maintains control by authorising important decisions before they are implemented.

The disturbance handler role; the manager must be prepared for the unexpected; he must be able to handle crises that may develop, such as failure of equipment or even strikes and take immediate action to correct the situation.

Another significant role of a manager is the negotiator role. Negotiating is an activity done with other individuals or other organisations. It may be required for example on contracts with the suppliers.

Managers can practice at different levels in an organisation and with different ranges of organisational activities. However, according to Fayol every manager needs to have three basic kinds of skills in order to carry out successfully all their roles. The importance of these skills depends mainly on the manager's rank in the organisation. These skills are technical, human and conceptual. Fig.

Technical skill is the ability to use the procedures, techniques, and knowledge of a specialised field. Technical skill is most important at the lower levels of the organisation.

Human skill is the ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people as individuals or in groups. This involves effective teamwork and the direction and leadership of staff. If the manager succeeds in keeping good human relationships at work then staff will be more efficient and more committed to the objectives of the organisation. Although human skill is important for managers at every level, it is the primary skill needed by middle managers.

Conceptual skill is the ability to coordinate and integrate all of an organisation's interests and activities. It involves seeing the organisation as a whole and understanding that its parts depend on one another; therefore understand the impact of any action on the other aspects of the organisation. The importance of conceptual skill increases as one rises through the ranks of the management system.

Fig. Proportions of management skills needed at different levels of management

Delegation is another essential element and skill of management. It involves behavioural, organisational and economic considerations. Delegation is a matter of judgement and if it involves confidence and trust to the subordinates by the manager. As Laurie J Mullins states, it is the allowance of freedom of action to subordinates within agreed terms of reference, thus giving them the necessary authority and responsibility, and the monitoring of their performance without undue interference or the continual checking of their work. If delegation is done effectively, it offers a number of potential benefits to the organisation and its members.

It is known that the human element plays a major role in the overall success of the organization. Effective resource management and the successful implementation of personnel activities are therefore two essential ingredients for improved organizational performance that can be added to the skills of a manager.

It is generally known that the last decades the world has seen an enormous scientific and technological evolution. The continuous economic and political changes affect the operation of organisations and businesses forcing the managers to continuous alteration of their plans and objectives. Various technological innovations resulted in new machinery, which correspond better to the constantly changing people's needs. Also new products have been developed and more complex consumer goods are produced. So a manager needs to be able to follow the progress and have good technical knowledge. Moreover, constant development in the means of communication lead to the co-operation with many foreign countries which forces managers to specialise and to be more organised and more effective.

Today's manager has to bear in mind that we live in an increasingly materialistic society. The way of life is continuously changing especially in the big cities. Nowadays people not only try to cover their needs but also want to satisfy their desires by spending a great amount of money on things that are not really necessary to them. So manager's objective is to ameliorate its business products or services so as to fulfil the customers' wish or demand. In order to achieve that he needs to be original, creative and witty.

Further more another factor that the manager needs to take into consideration is the various political changes not only in his country but in the other countries as well. Those changes affect their economy thus they affect consumer's income. However if the manager tries to keep himself informed, has a good budget and has perspicacity then the organisation is not severely affected by those changes.

Another quality of today's manager should be continuing sensitivity to events. The manager should communicate with his employees, provide their vision, motivate them and bear in mind that he is the person who keeps the organisation united. He has to have the ability to create but also maintain successful teams.

He is also required to maintain a balance between conflicting goals. All the stakeholders of the organisation have set different goals in order to satisfy their individual interests. It is the job of the manager to ensure that individual interests are subordinated to the general interest.

It can be said that for managers to improve their managerial skills continuous training should take place. It is true that managerial skills are mostly obtained through experience however continuous training can improve them. Through training a manager can improve his productivity, increase his effectiveness and discover new and maybe more effective ways of running the organisation.

Overall it can be concluded that management and consequently managers play an essential role to an organisation. They ensure that the organisation achieves its goals by planning and organising the operations of the organisation; they keep the organisation united by co-ordination and control and they form the informational link between the organisation and the environment. However since organisations are a necessary part of our society, the role of management today extends beyond the organisation. The decisions and actions of management have an impact on individuals, other organisations and the community. Therefore the responsibility of management in our society is decisive not only for the organisation itself but also for the very future of our economic and social system.

REFERENCES

1. Mullins Laurie J, 1, Management and Organisational Behaviour, 5th edition, PRENTICE HALL

. Plunkett/Attner, 18, Introduction to management, PWS-KENT

. Stoner James A.F., Freeman R.Edward, Gilbert Daniel R., Jr, 15, Management, PRENTICE HALL

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Black Beauty

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Bridget Masinga is sitting here, all coy and girlish. We are talking about how her life has changed since reaching the finals of Miss South Africa (she ended up with the second princess sash). She is laughing as she re-tells this story about misbehaving in Sun City (``a three month paid holliday'' is how she puts it).

We're at Primi Piatti the one next to the Y-fm offices near the escalators to the Zone. As we sit there, throngs of people are walking up and down those escalators, some pointing at this black goddess with the cherubic cheeks and the legs that go on like railway tracks. But she doesn't seem to notice.

And then it suddenly dawns on me, looking at this woman who many believe should have been the 00 Miss SA I'm thinking, thank God she didn't win.

See, Bridget can still pursue her social upliftment projects (she's just come back from Kenya to build a relationship with the Women for Women organisation which helps abused women move from being ``victims to survivors to active citizens'').

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She can accept offers for TV gigs (there's a couple in the pipeline, she promises).

She can bask in the sun at a caf for this interview without worrying about missing her next sponsor obligations or appearance at the opening of another envelope.

She wouldnt be able to sit there wearing something sexy but casual like jeans and a t-shirt she'd be forced to 'dress like a beauty queen' with some stupid ballgown. And besides that, she might feel forced to keep flashing that Colgate (read, fake, forced, superficial) smile. And, shell have to be wearing that damned sash. And damn would that be a drag.

So, I say, thank God that Cindy Nell got the title. Good for you Pretoria princess with the too-good-to-be-true Cindy Crawford mole and sparkly eyes. Because Bridget might not have got the crown - but she sure as hell got something more street cred. By the bucket-loads.

And now shes free from chaperones (hello guys, that means theres no grumpy aging spinsters to smooth-talk before you can even home in), no sash to make you feel you need the Presidents permission. And best part (well for me, as a paid-scribbler), she can answer my questions without having them screened first.

Things like Is there a man in your life? (``Craig! Well actually there is someone…''[Damn!]).

So I guess hitting the town together won't be on the agenda? (``I am actually a home-body. I like spending time chilling at home'').

BRIDGET was of cause seen by many different people in many quarters as the perfect new styled reality TV kinda Miss SA beauty queen. She defiantly wore her hair natural, she spoke her mind (Im a pittbull in a skirt is a headline I remember seeing in a Sunday newspaper that I will never forget in a hurry) and she was cool. Y cool.

So you can't help wondering what Julia Morley, the ugly sister to the Cinderellas of the Miss World pageant, would have thought of her. Would Mrs Morley take one look at the Afro-sista and send her back to Darkest on the next plane?

Well, judging by her track-record, that's the sort of thing Mrs Morley is famous for doing.

Two years ago in Sun City she even rubbed Ernest Adjovi from the Koras up the wrong way. But that had nothing on what happened when Mrs Morley picked a place on the world map and decided that Nigeria - Abuja to be exact - had a nice ring to it as the next stop on her Miss World roadshow. So she announced to the world press that thats where the pageant in 00 would take place. And herded off her charges to the humid shores of the Nigeria capital.

Then all hell broke lose.

First there was the issue about a woman called Amina Lawal, who had given birth to a child outside marriage and was subsequently sentenced in March last year to be buried up to her neck and pelted with heavy rocks until she died. The sentence was passed by the northern state of Katsina under Sharia Muslim law and due to be carried out in 004. But Mrs Morley knew nothing about such practices.

To tell you the truth, before I left [for Nigeria] I thought Sharia was a girls name, she ingeniously told Vanity Fair magazine in an interview recently. I got into big-shit trouble because I hardly realised what I was letting myself into. Thats the honest truth.

But while the woman who coined the term beauty with a purpose for her pageant claims she was reassured by the Nigerian authorities that Amina would never be killed - and that Nigeria was safe - maybe her decision had less to do with safety and more to do to with money, as in the $10-million a Nigerian media company promised she would get if the pageant took place there.

So, in the Holy Month of Ramadan, 0 flat bellies peeping out of tight jeans set foot on the tarmac of a country half of whose population is Muslim.

Needless to say their reception bit chilly - despite the 0 degree humidity.

Then influential Nigerian newspaper ThisDay publishes a story in which its young female writer says this about Mrs Morleys young charges ``What would Mohammed think? In all honesty, he would probably have chosen a wife from one of them...''

And then the shit really hits the fan. Riots break out.

``Down with beauty'' the rioters chant. ``Miss World is sin! Allahu Akbar!'' Churches and mosques razed to the ground. Bystanders necklaced with burning tires. First 15 people die. Then 50. And finally 50 dead.

Miss Canada flees. Then Miss South Korea. And finally, Mrs Morley gives in and charters a jumbo jet to get all the beauty queens back to the civilization of a grey and somber London.

Then theres all the other jinx and high dramas which have beset this beauty pageant business over the years. Our own Miss Teen was a fiasco in year one when Charnelle Dennis fell pregnant during her reign and handed over her crown with her body ill disguised in a dress that made her look like a white, melting marshmallow to hide her ballooning tummy. And last years winner Sally-Ann Kopa, the daughter of a domestic worker, had to struggle with the organisers to finally get her four-wheel drive and still hasnt seen all the money that was promised to her.

Miss World, on the otherhand has been beset by feminists storming its stages and dousing bikini-clad contestants with tomatoes and floor in 170 and contended in 17 with one contestant (Gay Mei-Lin from Hong Kong) who it turned out, was actually born with one asset not required on the selection criteria a penis.

But what does this all mean for us in Mzanzi, where we are probably up there with our Latin and Indian brothers - and sisters - with being obsessed with beauty queens.

Well, beauty pageants are always ratings winners. And if you were to pick one group of people - other than politicians and ex-Simunye presenters - who are devoid of talent but get gazillions of column inches devoted to them in gossip columns and weekend supplements and magazine spreads then it would have to be beauty queens. They have taken over our TV screens, infiltrated our stores but thankfully they havent taken over the airwaves just yet.

Were always looking for another beauty queen who can follow in the footsteps of Penny Colen-Ray and Annelize Kriel to bring the crown back home. Beauty queen aficionados seem to come out of the woodwork as soon as its beauty pageant season (I know a Sunday newspaper reporter who can tell you the crown holders for the past two decades and his eyes positively glint everytime Miss South Africa is mentioned. Bassie, he says, she almost won it (meaning Miss Universe, I think). Did you know Im related to Jacqui...)

But maybe theres a naivete there that we will have a chance again. Or maybe Im just plain skeptical. But now really guys, do you really think we stand a chance. See, the way I see it, beauty pageants used to be about perving women in bikinis, morphed into some sort of do-gooder charity cases (albeit with long silky legs) and now its become a sort of politically correct roadshow sans geriatric politicos. A kinda United Nations of pretty faces with lithe bodies where, luckily, the United States doesnt threaten to scratch the other queens if their boobs are bigger or if someone stole her nail file.

How else do you explain why a Miss World pageant tarnished by an ignorance of Sharia law eventually sees a dark haired Muslim beauty, Azra Akin (Miss Turkey; favourite hobbies belly dancing and playing the flute) walking off the crown on December .

Coincidence? I think not. You can see Mrs Morley running it through her mind okay, weve had a few Indians, a black. Now we need a Muslim. And next, maybe an Asian...

Its sortof like a concerted effort to court the impoverished nations of the world. And, interestingly, all this new colour to a usually lily-white pageant comes at a time when TV audiences in the western world are at an all time low, while viewers in Third World countries are at an all time high.

And you can see why. Beauty pageants are about fairytales, of rags to riches dreams materialised. Beauty queens meet kings and Presidents, become TV presenters and soap opera actresses and Bollywood starlets. Many start their own PR companies - while others bring out clothing lines and some even sit on the boards of stock-exchange listed multinationals!

If you ask me, its politics which is what has been behind the locations of these OTT productions.

Thats why it made sense for post-apartheid SA to become a host country, and then the country with the biggest African population on the continent and now, this year China (the country with the largest population on the planet, which is rising as the worlds next superpower - and potential new market for all of the wests excesses) is set to be the next location.(Ironically, at the time of going to press Mrs Morley has become beset with a new crisis after the Sars outbreak threatened to scuttle her plans yet again!).

But don't think it's just the beauty queen business that has needed a face-lift. When it comes to the fashion industry, you can't help but notice that trends might come and go, but the faces seem to stay the same.

When Vogue magazine published it's millennium edition in November 1, it featured what it called it's `model army', an 11 page spread of 41 belles from ``sweet 16 to glorious sixtysomethings these are Vogue's favourite faces''; a sort of encyclopaedia of the most important models of the past 1000 years according to the fashion bible if you like. But here's the rub there were just three black faces Alek Wek, Naomi Campbell and Iman.

One school of thought about these sort of anormalities is the fact that the fashion tzars of the western world don't have a lot of black models to chose from. That maybe if they were given a larger smorgasbord of black beauties, the international catwalks would gradually change its complexion.

Thus, worthy efforts like the Face of Africa modelling contest arrived to right this, intent on produce a new crop of African models who can hold their own on the world stage. Oluchi Onweagba, the first winner in 18, became a runaway success, rapidly becoming an international catwalk star and today she is one of the world's top ten supermodels. Oluchi's success seemingly proved this theory. But a few years down the line, though, Face of Africa seems to have unraveled, apparently due to a lack of sponsors for the venture. And Oluchi's successors have failed to emulate her success. Benvinda Mundenge of Namibia, the 1 winner, was sent packing after her hip size ballooned while the 000 winner Nombulelo Mazibuko and one of her runner-ups Lerato Moloi both from South Africa suffered a similar fate last year, apparently told by their bosses at the American modelling agency that they could never work in New York because they were too big and 'didn't have a professional look'.

Scratching underneath the surface, though, and the words of Naomi Campbell keep resonating.

``If the modelling industry looks into a mirror, then it prefers seeing a white face there,'' she once said.

That same month that Vogue unveiled its millennium issue, a BBC documentary on the modelling industry showed footage of senior staff at the Elite modelling agency (which at the time represented Campbell) calling blacks ``niggers'' and saying that Africa would be a great country if they were all white.

In one exchange a chaperone for Elite models explains that black women are rarely used in the capital of the fashion world, Milan.

``In Milano they can never use a black girl or an oriental. Very few,'' one of the executives was heard to say during the programme.

The racist comments shed new light on complaints about the `narrow mindedness' of the industry made by Naomi Campbell in 16. It was that year that she made the allegation that racism was behind her removal from a Vogue cover in favour of a white model.

``This business is about selling - and blonde and blue-eyed girls are what sells,'' she said.

Meanwhile, supermodel Iman once complained that she earned four times less than her white counterparts.

Go to any fashion show in the world's so-called fashion capitals of New York, London, Paris or Milan and you will be lucky to see more than two black models strutting their way down the ramp in a show unless of cause it is a presentation of a black designer like Sean 'Puffy' Combs or Ozwald Boateng.

It's the sort of thing not vocalised in the multi-million dollar frock business, but modelling successes like Naomi, Alek, Iman and now Oluchi - are an anomaly, the kind of token nod to the darker hued sistas of the world.

Even the manner in which the industry writes about black models borders on the crude and demeaning. Naomi has been labelled a `black panther' while Iman, who was actually a diplomat's daughter fluent in three languages when she was discovered in Somalia the 170s was touted as an illiterate shepardess who could not speak English!

The stark reality is that commercial viability is the bottom line in any industry. And when the couturier houses of the world was to sell clothes, the best way to do so is on the bodies of white models. That's because most of their clients relate to someone who has the same skin colour as them, allowing them to visualise just how they might look in that same evening gown or jeans or skirt.

But now that you've heard the doom and gloom, listen up there's light glimmer at the end of that tunnel. It seems that, after centuries of wrongs, the fashion and beauty worlds just like Mrs Morley's Miss World are finally realising that we all don't need to look the same, act the same or be the same that there's beauty in difference. And the mighty dollar is all behind this change in mindset yet again!

Take the monolithic L'Oreal cosmetic and haircare company. A few years ago we were beset with images of blonde and blue-eyed supermodels in their ad campaigns. If you're an accountant, this makes sense because a decade ago 75% of the company's $5.5 billion in annual sales came from Europe (according to Fortune magazine). But last year Europe only accounted for 4% of the group's $1.7-billion in revenues. (One of L'Oreal's brands Soft Sheen, for instance, has seen 0% of its R00-million in sales come from South Africa). And maybe that shift in sales has a lot to do with the fact that L'Oreal might have French actress Catherine Deneuve as the official face of the company's main French brands, SA girl Primrose Molantoa is the face of L'Oreal in South Africa, creating an ad campaign which is more relatable to the market the brand is aiming to sell to.

As Lindsay Owen-Jones, CEO of L'Oreal, explains succinctly about the diversification of the faces of the brand ``We realised that people of African origin, whenever they were in the world, were a huge potential business.''

Certainly a shift in mindset about African beauty is reaping rewards. Take Andi Manxiwa, the -year old winner of the Y-Mag model competition (the brainchild of modelling industry guru Jan Malan and supported by model boss Paul Diamond). She has been able to compete in the prestigious Ford Supermodel of the World competition where she was placed in the top 0 of contestants from 5 countries. She has secured editorial shoots with a number of magazines overseas including one for Self magazine in Mexico and she's snared a two year modelling contract with the Ford modelling agency!

ENDS

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Political and social influences on fashion in the 1930's

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Here is an outline of the varying factors that influenced what was fashionable and what people wore in the 10's.

Political and social influences

World happenings the Wall Street crash had a huge direct affect on what people wore in the 10's. Following this, even though it was in America it caused the way of dressing in Australia to become more conservative but feminine as it used to be before the roaring 0's. Hemlines dropped to mid-calf for day wear and full length for evening. The waist line moved back to the waist, the mature feminine look was in. Men's dress also became less youthful and more masculine, they were sharper edged and had noticeable shoulder pads.

The Wall Street crash meant that most people turned to movies as relief from the depression. As result, what actors and famous people wore greatly affected what was fashionable and therefore what people wore. People wanted to look like the movie stars especially in the way of evening gowns.

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Shirley temple this particular young actress was greatly looked up to. She was the perfect example of what children wore in the 10's. Parents would intentionally copy her and dress their children in what she wore. Shirley temple's dresses were made available in dress making books like 'McCall's'.

End of World War 1 At the end of the First World War women were sewing much more as it was cheaper (this was desirable because women were more conservative and in the depression there was little money for clothes) women would often simply copy all the clothes that they saw in movies or in the shops. Clothing was mended or patched before it was replaced even though styles were rapidly changing.

Social the American influence was potent in the 10's. Designers from over there brought with them daring bright colours and patterns that Australians had never seen before. Designers and manufacturers would visit other countries, including America, -4 times a year to keep updated with the recent fashions there.

Some of the influential designers were; Paris based Elsa Schiaparelli was the Italian designer who brought the sweater into high fashion. She was famous for the extravagance of her clothes. She widened the shoulders even more with anything from pads to gathers and braids. She brought in the intense colours (eg 'shocking pink') and over sized buttons. At the other end of the scale there was Russian born Valentina who dressed elegant women in simple dresses with a beautiful cut. Getting right away from the prior fussiness.

Historical influencesLeisure time in this decade sportswear took a different turn from the usual feminine soft look of the typical day and evening wear. The sportswear became more masculine, sports suits, leather jackets and mid slacks became popular. But through most of the decade women still had to wear mid calf dresses. For leisure in the afternoon tennis, cricket, horse riding, picnics and basically creating their own fun was common as there was no T.V. computers or ready made games available. Therefore in the afternoon women would wear soft flowing mid-calf dresses that were all the same, very tailored. In the evening there was a transformation. Many evenings were spent in entertainment like, plays, cards, performances, dancing etc, so a more formal look was required. The dresses almost always dropped down to full length. To give it the dressier look they would be more fitted and would often have frills and bows to decorate.

On a customs level this age was still a very modest one despite the fact the women dressed so elegantly and femininely. Swimming was popular but due to these traditions there were many regulations for swimming. The swimming costume was still neck to knee for most of the decade. Nearing the end of the decade though, sun bathing was 'in' so the suits became a little less substantial, the three piece was introduced and was known as 'separates' On a technological note, the materials we use today for swimming costumes were not invented back then so they were mostly made out of cotton, sometimes wool. They were also not tight but were loose and sat rather like clothes.

Because there were so many different pass times and leisure activities to be involved in at different times of the day, there was a dress and particular style for every occasion and. It was very important for the women of the time to be wearing just the right dress. Social gatherings were a huge part of life. Here is a cartoon which strongly boasts this area of fashion and especially shows the impact that women wearing pants had. As, in this decade, women did wear pants, especially mid-calf, when the right occasion called for it.

Technological influences The first openly synthetic fibres were developed and available in the 10's. Prior to this there was only manufactured fibres that were developed to improve natural fibres. In 15 the Du Pont de Nemours Company successfully synthesized nylon. As a result, nylon stockings were introduced into fashion solidly by 1 but its use was interrupted by World War . Wide use of this synthetic fibre wasn't seen until after WW.

As written in the historical influences the synthetic fibres for swimming costumes were not yet available so bathing suits were made of cotton and loosely fitted.

Hair styles changed thanks to the availability of permanent 'Marcel waves' this new invention was very popular.

1 was seen as the beginning of the chemical age. A woman could easily and often did wear nothing but artificial materials from head to foot. So it was easy for a woman to be wearing; a cellophane hat, rayon dress and gloves to plastic pearls and bracelet, patent leather shoes with plastic heels, and a handbag with 'Lucite' plastic frame. Here is a report that was written on this subject at the time

CHEMISTS MAKE A

NEW WORLD

By Frederick Simpich

(From an article in The National Geographic Magazine, November 1

Photographs by Willard R. Culver

Copyright National Geographic Society 1)

At a New York fashion show, we saw a girl clad from head to foot in artificial materials. Everything she wore was made from synthetic stuffs created by chemists.

[A LIVING SYMBOL OF THE CHEMICAL AGE - She wears no silk, wool, linen, cotton, or leather - no jade, ivory or pearls. All is synthetic. From cellophane hat, rayon dress and gloves to plastic pearls and bracelet, patent-leather shoes with plastic heels, and a handbag with Lucite plastic frame, her outfit is all of laboratory origin.]

Her hat was cellophane; her frock was rayon. She wore Nylon stockings and carried a patent-leather handbag and stood in imitation alligator shoes and wore jade bracelets and ivory beads; her parasol handle was from beautifully colored plastic.

[HERE NATURE ONLY SUPPLIED THE GIRLS, THE PLANT LIFE, SEA AND SAND. - In this scene everything else is of artificial, man-made materials. Bathing suits, the beach dress, hat, umbrella, plates, napkins, tablecloth, sun glasses - even the book covers of PX cloth - are made of synthetics.]

Even the faint hint of musk on her imitation silk handkerchief came from a synthetic perfume; on her nails there glistened a synthetic dye, and other coal-tar dyes imparted rich shades to her ensemble.

[TRULY NOW SCIENCE WITH LUSTROUS MAGIC GILDS THE LILY - Thanks to mass production of man-made textiles, women today can be better dressed than ever before, and at less cost. This garment in tango shade is of rayon, which now so largely displaces silk.]

No wool or linen, no silk or cotton, no ivory or jade, not even any leather, figured in her costume. Only the girl herself was natural - natural flesh and bone wrapped in her own waterproof skin.

[FROM COAL, AIR AND WATER, SCIENCE PRODUCES THESE SOFT, DIAPHANOUS STOCKINGS - Known as Nylon, this amazing fabric is not imitation silk, but an entirely new material, developed by du Pont after years of research. Strong, durable, and elastic, it seems destined to have a profound effect on the worlds long-established silk industry.]

There she stood, a startling symbol of this new artificial world risen so fast since the World War. In newspapers, every few days, you read of yet another miracle from this or that great chemical laboratory - wool from milk; alcohol, rubber, and false teeth from gas; licorice from old stamps - or a new way to poison grasshoppers.

10'S FASHION

This is a brief description of the fashion of this decade. You can refer back to the fashion influences written above to see where some of the styles were derived from.

The 0's was a rapid change from the flapper look of the 0's. From that boyish look, fashions went back to being very feminine and mature. The hemlines dropped to mid-calf for afternoon dresses and to full length for evening gowns. Dresses were very willowy and soft. Darts disappeared and were replaced with ruffles, waistlines moved back to the waist and were very tailored underneath broad shoulders. Most often achieved by shoulder pads but this effect was also often gained by ruffles, braids, feathers, and gathers. These broad shoulders, slim waists and soft hips all accentuated the female curves. Necklines received a lot of attention. They were lower and often accentuated with ruffled or wide-scallop edged collars.

The evening/formal gown often had the popular empire waist with ties at the back. The dress could boast butterflies, fabric flowers, puffy sleeves, flowers could be placed at the centre of the neckline, to the side, on one shoulder, or at the centre waist and of course bows were another popular accent. Some designers also introduced large buttons, and bright colours. All of these accessories added to the emphasized feminine look.

Women's sportswear was more masculine than that of the everyday outfit. This is when sports suits and leather jackets and mid slacks became popular.

During this era fur was seen and worn extensively. Sable, mink, chinchilla, Persian lamb and silver fox were all in demand. They were worn as capes, coats, stoles, wraps, accessories and trimmings to clothes during both the day and night.

Hats, unlike in the 0's were now just an accessory. They were worn at an angle. Pill boxes became popular, turbans emerged and there were also brimmed hats.

Handbags, though, were much like those of the 10's. Beaded bags were seen extensively as well as enamelled and mesh bags. Leather bags didn't become popular until nearing the end of the decade. One design that was popular was the three pocket leather bag with a large flap and the owner's initials on the front.

There was no one kind of shoe which everyone wore in the 0's. there was a wide range which included rounded toes with wide thick heels, pumps, flat shoes, ankle strap styles with moderate heels, slip on's and lace up's.

Skirts in the thirties were very detailed. Yokes were common to give it a V shape. The skirts would hug the hips, minimising them and then often flare out a little to give a flowing look. Layers and ruffles also appeared. The bottom of the skirt could also consist of pleats or gathers.

The corset wasn't such a necessity it was still there but most boasted no boning. By the late thirties, the separate bra and girdle became acceptable but one piece corsets never ceased being available.

During this decade, men's suits became much sharper edged with huge shoulder pads.

Hair styles for women became much fuller and longer due to the availability and popularity of the 'Marcel wave'.

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Layoffs Community Change in China

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Layoffs Change in China 1

Layoff is a special kind of unemployment in China. It refers to the worker who is laid off from state-owned enterprises. Up to now, the amount of layoffs in China reaches more than 10 millions. Layoff has become a main problem of economic and social development in China. As a result, Chinese government, organizations, institutions and individuals have paid more attention and set strategies to solve to this problem. In this assignment, we try to illustrate the layoffs' history and current state, their measurable desired outcome and plan for change for relative institutions, partners, individuals, families and policies.

History of layoffs

Before 178, China carried out planned economy system. Its feature was that government directly run economy, including deciding production, distribution, and expenditure of enterprises. In this condition, enterprises had not self-management rights and the economic performance was bad. On such a base of state-owned system, China's 80 million state employees guaranteed jobs for life and cradle-to-grave welfare system. However, china transformed to market economy system

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Layoffs Change in China

after 178. The conditions of enterprises and their workers also began to change. In the condition of running market economic system, some enterprises bankrupted and others developed. Consequently, all the state-owned enterprises had to improve their technology and management to meet the challenge of sharp competition. As a result, some workers were unemployed due to adjustment of product structure and technology innovation. Since early 10s, more and more workers lost their jobs. Among18 and 001, the amount of layoff reached more than 0 millions.

Chinese government and all society have been working hard to solve this problem by setting and implementing series of strategies and policies. Up to now, . percent of layoffs were registered at reemployment centers. Among them, 15 millions have found new jobs. And among the rest 8 million layoffs who have no job, . percent of them got basic living allowances from the government.

The present situation of layoffs

Layoffs Change in China

Although efforts have been done to resolve the layoffs issue, the amount of layoffs is still on the top. The main problems of present situation are

1. Reemployment rate of layoffs went down annually. In 18, there were 6.1 millions layoffs reemployed with 50% of reemployment rate. The reemployment number of 1 was 4. million with the rate of 4%. In 000, reemployed workers were down to .6 millions with the rate of 5%. The year before last year, the amount of reemployed workers declined to .7 millions with a low rate of 0%.

. Aged problem become a barrier for layoffs to find new jobs. It's reported that 46.88% of layoffs are at the age from 5 to 45 and .% of them are at the age older than 45.

. Most of layoffs are unskilled workers. The official information shows that layoffs are generally poor educated. 48.57% of them are under high school level, 4.5% are high school level and only 8.1% of them are in college level. Their technical level is also in a low level. Only 5.67% of them are super technicians. The ratio of middle level is 4.18%. Obviously, 60.15% of them are under the middle level.

Layoffs Change in China 4

4. The living standard of layoffs is still in a low level. Although .% percent of layoffs have got basic living allowances from government, the average monthly subsidize of each unemployed worker is about $5 which only counts for 0% of employed workers. In this living level, layoffs feel difficult in affording house, medical care and education for their children.

5. The contradiction of supply and demand in labor market is still outstanding. According to Chinese government, China can provide about 40 million new jobs in the next three years. However, there will be more than 5 millions new labors enter the market in this period. The number of supply is 1 million larger than the number of demand. This condition is not good for layoffs who want to be reemployed.

6. Layoffs issue becomes unsteady factor in some places. There are still 15 million layoffs in China. They have no jobs and live in a low standard. It's inevitable that a few of them would be involved in theft, robbery and other criminalities. What's more, if the condition of layoff could not be changed in a certain time, they would show their resentment to government and society.

Layoffs Change in China 5

Therefore, government, institutions and all the society should pay more attention to layoffs issue. And the further strategies should be taken into action to resolve this thorny problem.

Measurable outcome of layoffs issue

We plan to use 8 years to solve layoffs issue completely. The goals and measurable outcome are showed following.

1. Eight years later, the reemployment rate of layoffs is up to more than 5%. It means that there are more than 14.5 million of present layoffs will be reemployed by the year of 010.

. Each layoff will be free trained to learn at least one new technology. This way, layoffs should improve their competitive abilities and find appropriate jobs.

. Unemployment compensation covers all the layoffs. Layoffs who have no abilities to be employed will be relieved by unemployment compensation. Their living level will reach to 70% of those employed workers.

Layoffs Change in China 6

4. All layoffs are covered with old aged pension, medical care insurance and other social security policies.

5. Each layoff's family member owes at least 0 square meters surface area of house. At that time, the problem of unaffordable house will no longer exist.

Strategies to change layoffs community in China

1. Adjust and improve policies for state-owned enterprise reform, industrial structure and income distribution.

First, the aim of enterprise reform should be changed to create more new jobs rather than simply lay off workers. This way, with the reform of enterprises, more and more layoffs should be reemployed in the condition of increasing labor rate of production and economic performance.

Secondly, properly develop some labor-intensive industries to employ layoffs. Employment has a vital bearing on people's livelihood. The task of increasing employment is arduous now and will remain so for a long time to come. It is a term strategy and policy of the state to expand employment. Governments at all levels are taking it as their major

Layoffs Change in China 7

obligation to improve the business environment and create more jobs. The measures include opening up more avenues for employment and develop labor-intensive industries, giving policy support to enterprises that increase jobs and reemploy laid-off workers, introducing flexible and diverse forms of employment and encouraging people to find jobs on their own or become self-employed, improving the system of pre-job training and employment services and raise worker's skills for jobs. This policy will benefit largely solving the problem of re-employment of laid-off workers.

Thirdly, government should collect funds to help layoffs by using tax and transfer payment. To develop economy and raise the living level of people, China began to carry out the new policy of encouraging some people become rich first through honest labor and lawful operations. In the same time, China has also made the best to make everybody benefit from reform and opening up to the outside world. In this policy, encouraging some people become rich first is the main aspect. As a result, the gap of living level between rich and poor gradually enlarge. This situation is not good for social change. For this reason, China turns to carry out a new policy to narrow the gap of income between the rich and the poor. Government will concentrate its eyes on solving the difficulties

Layoffs Change in China 8

and problems of the poor through taxes adjustment and transfer payment. Absolutely, this policy will benefit the laid-off workers.

. Enhance security policies regarding politics reform, open-up, poverty relief and security funding.

First of all, politics reform should be more effective. As a result, the functions of government would change from directly managing economics to paying more attention to social services. In this condition, government concerns about social fair, education, weakness and environment protection. Thus, layoffs should benefit from the change of politics reform. Developing democracy and establishing a political civilization are an important goal for building a well-life society in an all-round way. China develops the political situation characterized by democracy, solidarity, liveliness, stability and harmony. In China the core of political system is to guarantee people's rights, including life right, development right, labor right, and so on. Chinese government tries its best to safeguard and realize people's interests and regard continued improvement of people's lives as an important task. In the same time, China has enjoyed long-term social stability and solidarity and had a good government and a united people. Moreover, China will sustain

Layoffs Change in China

stable political environment. All these will make it possible to solve the problem of laid-off workers effectively.

Likewise, open more industrial areas to the outside world to absorb more investment including foreign funds and private capitals. This will increase more new jobs for layoffs. Definitely, China has the most largest consumption market in the world. Many countries tend to target this huge market by the aim of investing in certain industries. It's a good opportunity for China to develop its economics as well as to create more new jobs to society. So, open more industrial areas to outside world is an appropriate strategy to make more jobs for layoffs.

Furthermore, enhance poverty relief system in urban areas. 0 years ago, China's government set up a relief project to provide enough food and other living necessities for needy people and the people who lose labor ability. So far this project has reached great achievements and helped more than 160 million people out of poverty. But in the past, the policy of supporting poor mainly concentrated on rural areas. Since the goal in rural area is reached. It's time to change the target to urban areas right now. From 00, China will allocate more than $10 billion annually to relieve poverty in urban areas. It can be predicted that layoffs' life will be better in near future.

Layoffs Change in China 10

Finally, set up more effective system to fund unemployment insurance, old aged pension and medical care for layoffs. China's goal is to establish and improve a social security system compatible with the level of economic development. This will provide an important guarantee for social stability and long-term peace and order in the country. In the next eight year, China will fund $ 100 billions annually to improve the system of unemployment insurance and subsistence allowances for urban residents including layoffs. This social security system will help laid-off workers sustain living level.

. Set up suitable strategies to develop economic.

Keep economic development as the central task and maintain a sustained, rapid and sound development of national economy. Chinese government thinks that peace and development are two subjects of current world. Development is the fundamental principle. The key to solve China's problems is to develop economy. For more than 0 years, China has made its best to concentrate on developing economy and made great progress in economic construct. Now China make its mind to make economic growth reach more than 7 percent every year in the first two decades of 1st century. The goal of economic development is to build a well-off society in an all-round way. All these will create more

Layoffs Change in China 11

employment opportunities for laid-off workers and will provide more solid physical condition for solving living difficulties and other problems. From the increase of economic development, more than 60 millions new jobs will be created annually in which 0 millions of them can be provided to layoffs.

4. Fully encourage government, institutions, organizations, and individuals to help layoffs.

Center government, provincial government, city government and local government are responsible for funding and policy supporting. Civil affairs bureau is responsible for funding and relieving. Its duties include establishing relief policy, organizing relief work, supervising implement of social relief policy, relief laid-off workers and so on. It plays an important role in solving the difficulties of laid-off workers. Labor department is responsible for security policy support and information service. Financial department is responsible for gathering taxes and funding. Enterprise management department is responsible for information service and employment policy support. Poverty relief department is responsible for relieving poverty and difficulties. Re-employment Center is an organization that directly service laid-off workers. It provides information service, organizing re-employment

Layoffs Change in China 1

training, investigating the conditions of laid ¨Coff workers, allocating unemployment relief compensation. Union and Women's Federation are volunteers and partners in layoffs issue. They take charge of protecting layoffs' working rights. As an important partner, enterprise is responsible for providing new jobs. Neighborhood communities play an special role in this issue. They are partners in charge of providing family administrative jobs, employment information services. Another significant task of them is to mediate conflicts between neighborhoods. There are lots of donators in this issue, they are volunteers and donate money and foods for layoffs.

Please note that this sample paper on Layoffs Community Change in China is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Layoffs Community Change in China, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on Layoffs Community Change in China will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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