Law and obedience

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Laws are put in place when communities can no longer be governed by tradition or a shared sense of values. To have a society and more so a landmass of people differing in culture, value and day-to-day rules, a set of laws backed by outcomes and punishment must be installed to ensure respect for one another's differences. The question of debate is "can it be wrong to obey the law in Canada?" I have chosen yes, the law is not perfect and mistakes and changes throughout history such as women's and minority's rights to vote will be among my stronger points. Assisted suicide (Euthanasia) will also be discussed due to its high profile nature challenged throughout many cases as a law contradicting rights in the charter. And finally I will discuss marijuana's effects and the lack of health issues, which surround its use, and in turn why it is not considered a wrongful drug my many. My goal is to make enough strong points to give reason to believe that at times it can be wrong to follow the law.

Historical Changes dealing with laws

History repeats itself they say, finding laws of the past which are strongly opposed to now is something we can expect of our grandchildren when they view laws we live by presently. Although it is simple to say that law is gradual and changes happen only when people want them to happen, it is not so easy to explain why it has taken so long to give women and minorities the right to a vote. The real question is simple, not giving minorities and women the right to vote now is simply wrong and unlawful, but was it right when it was still a norm in the past. Laws now, protecting everybody from discrimination have existed and changed so much since the beginning of the 0th century, but racism and hate crimes still go unnoticed and the law keeps being bent and broken. When a law is changed it is changed because society feels it needs to be changed, making the previous belief wrong and the present law always questionable. Women have had to struggle for their rights to be known and so have minorities while being oppressed due to a common unfair tradition on the backs of wealthy white men. Democracy caters to all but it has been tested over time. Until everyone casts a vote is it truly a democracy? No. Women gained the right to vote first in 116 Manitoba, it was not until 140 when all descents of women were given the right to vote including Chinese, Japanese and east Indian and then finally in 160 men and women of Inuit descent were registered as votersA1. These dates are surprisingly recent yet have been so slow to recognise that they are simple human rights. While these facts do not directly give the idea that following some laws are wrong they do point out that the laws surrounding major issues in the past have proven to be wrong, so when a woman spoke out for her right to vote in 116 she was looking to change a law and not necessarily break one.

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Euthanasia Relating to Assisted Suicide

Euthanasia is a right everyone should have, the right to leave this world in peace. Section 41 of the criminal code1 states that every person who "counsels" a person to commit suicide, or "aids or abets" a person to commit suicide, is guilty of an indictable offence, whether suicide ensues or not, and faces imprisonment for up to 14 years. Section 41 also states that "no person is entitled to consent to have death inflicted on him, and such consent does not affect the criminal responsibility of any person whom death may be inflicted on the person by whom consent is given." With this in mind the law clearly prevents many who suffer from HIV or other terminal diseases of granting their wishes to die in a smooth conforming manner. Many people infected with HIV know of the loss of dignity or the agonizing death which accompanies the AIDS, yet their option to leave this world before experiencing any dismay is not lawful it is in fact very difficult to find any assistance without the worry of compromising others freedoms. One of the most famous cases dealing with assisted suicide is a case in 1 involving a woman who challenged the Supreme Court of Canada; it was named the Rodriguez case. Suffering from ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) she challenged the Charter under sections 14 and 41 arguing that her rights were violated. A Supreme Court rejected her lawsuit in that there was no violation of her rights to liberty and security. In another case more recently, 001 a man named Jim Wakeford from Toronto challenged the same Charter rights pleading for the court to grant him and a medical practitioner of his choice a constitutional exemption from the Criminal Code provisions. His case was stricken out due to it having no sustainable legal basis.

One could argue the same rights in a case of prostitution, after all these are rights dealing with the use and or outcome of your own body. A point made over time is the right to refuse medical treatment. The case of Malette v. Shulman reads self-determination and the concept of individual autonomy lie at the heart of an individual's right to refuse medical treatment. This would give you the idea that assisted suicide can be accomplished legally, but in order to have a dignified, pain free procedure take place there are many legal issues at stake. To assume suicide for anyone who is suffering can be accomplished legally without help is foolish. Just because you want to end your life doesn't mean your morals and respect for the laws you have lived with can be traded in. No matter how much the pain or the sadness from family and friends watching the suffering causes, most people are moral and hold dignity and pride among their own pain. The Idea of courts recognising this would seem likely, but too much could be at stake for future cases dealing with possibly murder, using assisted suicide as a defence. There should be a system catering to people who have no hope of survival or avoiding pain without compromising their lifestyles fundamentals. There are too many cases of people trying to meet the ultimate end of their lives, who are veered away from their own instinctive rights by the law's cold feelings and attitudes for something not easy for anyone to understand. A study4 performed of 1 people who planned to have assisted suicide basically stated that they felt relief after having planned an assisted suicide death. The findings include as follows

- Death through overdose of drugs was the most commonly cited method planned for assisted suicide;

- Those planning to have assisted death stated that they would all end their lives when they felt they had reached the point in their illness when they had no chance of recovery;

- The decision to have assisted death, and the planning associated with that decision, can occur at any stage of HIV and AIDS and is not unique to individuals whose illness has progressed;

- Depression did not appear to be a factor that affected the decision to have an assisted death, and none of the persons living with HIV/AIDS voiced concern that no one cared for them;

- Many were concerned about the loss of control related to future health problems and death that not all pain could be controlled, and the side effects associated with pain control.

These are strong convictions of self-assurance in the matter of death. These people are not unstable and are in most cases well enough to appear in court. They ask that they be given a legal break so that society may not make a mockery of their conclusion. Law biding or not, these people have made decisions and will most likely go through with them, and on the grounds of being legal and moral, both can coexist with some planning and common sense.

Marijuana

Most people have probably tried a cigarette or a glass of wine and even a joint of marijuana in their lifetime. Do these three items belong in society and more so do they require legal boundaries so much as to ban them. Tobacco is taking an obvious hit from the government with good reason, the severe health risks that come with the habit. Sure it can be nice to have a cigarette every now and then, just like a slice of cake with lots of calories that's high in fat. And sure a glass of wine a day can be good for you as long as your not one of many people who drink and drive, have a dependency problem or even beat their wife out of frustration, anger or are just too blinded by the liquor to realize they have a problem. Very rarely if ever will you hear of a marijuana user who has hit his wife while intoxicated solely on marijuana. Smoking marijuana isn't the best thing for you by any means, but as a past time it is no worse than the rest of the drugs available to us. In fact its medical problems shadow so far beneath the cigarette and the booze it's a wonder it's not legal. A list of facts5 surrounding marijuana and its effects presented into a court are as listed

- Consumption of marijuana is relatively harmless compared to the so called hard drugs and including alcohol and tobacco;

- There exists no hard evidence demonstrating any irreversible organic or mental damage from the consumption of marijuana;

- That cannabis does cause alteration of mental functions and as such, it would not be prudent to drive a car while intoxicated;

- There is no hard evidence that cannabis induces psychoses;

- Cannabis is not an addictive substance;

- Marijuana is not criminogenic in that there is no evidence of a casual relationship between cannabis use and criminality;

- That the consumption of marijuana probably does not lead to "hard drug" use for the vast majority of marijuana consumers, although there appears to be a statistical relationship between the use of marijuana and a variety of other psychoactive drugs;

- Marijuana does not make people more aggressive or violent;

- There have been no recorded deaths from the consumption of marijuana;

- There is no evidence that marijuana causes a motivational syndrome;

- Less than 1% of marijuana consumers are daily users;

- Consumption in so-called "decriminalized states" does not increase out of proportion to states where there is no decriminalization;

- Health related costs of cannabis use are negligible when compared to the costs attributable to tobacco and alcohol consumption.

Having listed all the facts of marijuana, which are clearly in direct opposition with tobacco and alcohol, it is hard to feel a sense of crime when indulging. Although the decriminalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes has lifted some weight of law enforcers there are not enough reasons provided for society to justify a complete ban. Many parents might feel more comfortable knowing that their teen daughter or son is going to a bar to "smoke up" rather than to get drunk. From a parental perspective the hope your siblings can limit their use of either of the drugs would be ideal, but parents shouldn't have to worry about experimentation taking place through shady characters, but rather a controlled environment. The worry of violence is almost non-existent with the use of marijuana opposed to alcohol granted they are different in their effects. Medically, marijuana has competed with many other types of medication to replace THC (tetrahydrocannabinol/marijuana), but overall THC shows lesser health problems as well as being very cost effective5. Maybe ten years from now it will be looked to as a stress reliever and have the freedom its fellow drugs in the market tobacco and alcohol share, and more importantly the freedom for Canadians to decide which drug they will partake in if called for. For now possession fines are minimal yet the hate is still shared and the hypocrisy still continues.

Although time is in order for any type of change, the changes must start somewhere. The need for something different is common for people and therefore society must work together to decide what is going to help our future rather than alter it. History has given into many of its mistakes but only because of people striving for happiness and fairness. The future of euthanasia as usual will be hard to conclude and always hard to understand, when ones life is in the hands of an oppressor or a law it is hard to feel your rights as a Canadian are being met. With proper structure, even suicide can be less trivial and more understood with the willingness to listen and learn to the basic needs humans share, which have no selfishness attached. As for marijuana, the future will be bright, dark or cloudy to some. People who smoke don't want to feel wrong for enjoying it, people who don't smoke marijuana anymore may not want to be faced with its pros and cons and people who have never tried it will always have up to date facts as weather or not they will or will not experience with it. The key point I have made throughout this essay is to establish the need for choice be it a vote, a joint or even suicide. The laws are in place for the people and most importantly by the people, but people make mistakes and so the laws we follow. A Democracy is the right to change and the right to oppose. Laws don't work for everybody, and not everyone can follow those laws. So to answer the question "can it be wrong to obey the law in Canada", yes of course it can. People will continue to lie in court rooms to protect somebody and people will always wonder if a politician is telling lies, but we must all understand that laws are made to do the best job they can and are far from perfect. If I were to write this essay question again, using different sources and another array of topics, I would look to smaller cases such as unfair settlements dealing with custody in family law. Also I could find a long list of challenged laws from the past throughout newspapers or journals, which would correspond, to people making changes and laws being moulded. Law is always questionable that's why people have court hearings and lawyers, if following a law is morally wrong then that is an individual decision which eventually we will all face.

Microsoft ® Encarta Encyclopaedia, 14, Funk & Wagnall's Corporation.

Canadian criminal code, section 41

Wakeford v. Canada (attorney General), 001 OJ No 0 (QL).

Malette v. Shulman (187), 6 O.R. (d) 4 (C.A.) at -10

Canadian AIDS Society. Study on Euthanasia, Assisted Suicide and HIV/AIDS. A Report Prepared for the Canadian AIDS Society by Carole Neron. Ottawa The Society, 16. Neron's study began as a qualitative study forces and was later expanded for academic purposes.

http//www.ontariocourts.on.ca/decisions/000/july/clay.htm.

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Cost accounting

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Executive Summary

By looking at the calculation result from Appendix, we are aware that the efficiency variances for material, labour and variable overhead, the labour price variance and spending variance for variable and fixed overhead turn out to be unfavourable and favourable. These results can be used to evaluate the Jigsaw department, and give the performance evaluation of Jason Cheng (department's manager), Thomas Licuria (purchasing manager), Christine Tarrant (production manager). It is followed by detailed explanation of approaches specified in the development of the standard costing system; variance analysis, performance evaluation and reward system respectively, and the proper recommendations to improve those three areas.

Introduction

Strattenberg Toys that a privately owned company in the manufacture of toys, puzzles, games and jigsaws has been operating for over 0 years. Each department is responsible for production, distribution and customer service related to its products. Research and Development, Product and Process Design and Marketing are undertaken centrally. The company had a great reputation in their industry. The Jigsaws Department began operations in March 00 and has finished its first full financial year of operations.

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The jigsaw department adopt new standard costing system during the year. They collect information from three main resources

¡¤ The information is collected from other departments about their standard production costs where different department has different process.

¡¤ Information was also collected from the department's raw materials purchasing manager, Thomas Licuria, and the production manager, Christine Tarrant regarding their estimation of costs and usage for material, labour, indirect manufacturing costs.

¡¤ Collect information on production costs incurred in the first three months of Jigsaw's operations.

Purpose of standard cost systems and variance analysis

Standard cost system were initiated by manufacturing companies, it can also be used by service and not-for-profit organization. In a standard cost system, both standard and actual costs are recorded in the accounting records. This dual recording provides an essential element of cost control have norms against which actual operations can be compared. Standards cost systems make use of standard costs, which are the budgeted costs to manufacture a single unit of product or perform a single service. Developing a standard cost involves judgment and practicality in identifying the material and labour types, quantities, and prices as well as understanding the kinds and behaviours of organizational overhead.

A standard cost system has three basic functions collecting the actual costs of a manufacturing operation, determining the achievement of that manufacturing operation, and evaluation performance through the reporting of variances from standard.

For each item of direct material, for each labour operation, and for factory overhead attributable to each department, actual costs are measured against standard cost, resulting in differences. These differences are analyzed and identified as specific types of standard cost variances. Variance analysis is the process of categorizing the nature (favourable or unfavourable) of the differences between actual and standard costs and seeking explanations for those differences. A well-designed variance analysis system captures variances as early as possible, subject to cost-benefit assessments. The system should help managers determine who or what is responsible for each variance and who is best able to explain it. An early measurement and reporting system allows managers to monitor operations, take corrective action if necessary, evaluate performance, and motivate workers to achieve standard production. As standard costs provide a basis for management by exception. Exceptions (variances) can be isolated and responsibility for these exceptions assigned. The materials price, materials quantity, labour rate, labour efficiency, and overhead budget and efficiency variances are used to isolate exceptions to what was expected about direct costs in advance of production. Consideration of these exceptions can result in changes in how products are manufactured or priced.

To control cost, the managers should determine the reasons for each significant variance by investigating the circumstances that caused it. Effective action can be taker only when the caused of cost variances are known.

Performance Evaluation and discussion

Jason Cheng

Jason Cheng, Jigsaws Department's manager has been with Strattenberg for 6 years. Before becoming manager of the Jigsaw department, he was manager of the company's Model Toy department. The bonus received by Jason depends on the base of % of department's profit as long as net profit was higher than $60,000. From table 1, the operating income is $6,658 which it is higher than $60,000. Through the calculations, Jason should get $10,7.74 as his bonus. Generally speaking, Jason had good performance during the year, because the department making profits more than anticipated. On the other hand, the favourable conclusion could be explained by two main reasons. The first reason is about the Jigsaw revenue factor. The Jigsaw's revenue has been increasing during the periods. It caused higher demands than the expectation. The other reason could be Jason Cheng did good management that increasing the quality of the production despite he just he has little experience in the manufacture of jigsaws.

Thomas Licuria.

Thomas Licuria is the department's purchasing manager. He is responsible on purchasing production materials (Paper, Cardboard and Cardboard box). The bonus would pay to him based on the material price variance if the variance is favourable. Because he managed to get the price discount for purchasing the paper and the cardboard of 0% and 16% respectively, so through the calculations, given the purchased price variance, Thomas will get $5,40, and given the used material price variance, he will get $,756.

Thomas Licuria found the cheaper supplier and got substantial price discounts for both the paper on which the jigsaw image is printed and the cardboard on which the image is glued, of 0% and 16% respectively. It looks good, but, in order to get the discount, he accepted the deal that buying large quantities for both materials from the supplier. In fact, this activities lead to large ending inventories of both paper and cardboards. In order to get additional bonus, Thomas Licuria could ignore in monitoring the quality of the materials. Then, it could lead to ineffective production. This is unfair to Christine who is in charge of the process of production.

Christine Tarrant

Christine Tarrant is the production manager. Her performance should be evaluated by the efficiency variance for material, labour and variable overhead, the labour price variance and the spending variances for variable and fixed overheads. The bonus should base on the above variances. Her performance are $ 55,87.5 of unfavourable in variance of Labour efficiency, 1,504.75 (Unfavourable) of Materials efficiency variance, $ 7,45 (Favourable) of Labour Price Variance, 10,000 (Favourable) of Spending Variance for Fixed overhead.

Due to unexpected sales demand, her production team often had to work overtime at higher labour rates. This became such a problem at times that Christine had to employ several casual machine operators to cover production demand. That is why the occurrence of the unfavourable variance. Christine hired the cheapest labour and reduced the average direct labour hour, as a result, we get favourable variance. Christine managed to reduce the maintenance expenditure of the machine, so the spending variance for fixed overhead was favourable.

Evaluate the approach Jigsaw has taken in the development of following areas.

The standard costing system

In Jigsaw's standard costing system, both standard costs and actual costs are need to record in the accounting records. This dual recording provides an essential element of cost control having norms against which actual operations can be compared. Jigsaw department use standard costs, which are the budgeted or estimated costs to manufacture a single unit of jigsaw. Standards are traditionally established for each component including material, labour, and overhead of product cost. Jigsaw department's developing a standard cost involves judgment and practicality in identifying the material and labour types, quantities and prices. A primary objective in producing a single jigsaw is to minimize unit cost while simultaneously achieving certain quality specifications. In other words, the main purpose of the standard cost system in Jigsaw department is to minimise the cost of the product and maximize the revenue, simultaneously produce quality product as well.

Variance Analysis

Jigsaw department's variance analysis consists of parts. Which are material variance, labour variance and variable manufacturing overhead cost variance.

Direct materials

We can see from the calculations that actual out put price of paper and cardboard is less than the standard cost, only Cardboard boxes is slightly higher. It means the purchasing department did well as the price decrease. But, we still need to notice that purchasing manager bought a large quantities of raw material in order to get the discount. But, it may cause large ending inventories and large inventory cost.

Direct labour

F-b variance for direct labour = $ 745F + $ 5587.5U

= $ 476.5U

The labour rate variance shows the difference between the actual rate paid to labour for the period and the standard rate for all hours actually worked during the period. The comparison of the number of hours actually worked with the standard hours allowed for production-achieved results in the labour efficiency variance, which is $5587.5.

Variable manufacturing overhead

F-b variance for the variable manufacturing overhead = $11880F + $1017U

= $117U

Compare to the standard cost, actual cost is still $117 more. Management should consider some reaction to reduce the cost.

Performance evaluation and reward system

The jigsaw department adopt the evaluation and rewards scheme measured and evaluated against the department's master budget and its stand cost system as follows

Jason Cheng

As we know that Jason Cheng would receive a bonus equal to % of the department's profit as long as net profit was higher than $60000. But we should consider that the actual net profit is less than the budgeted, and the cost has been increased. Jason should only receive a bonus if the actual net profit is more than budgeted.

Thomas Licuria

Would receive a bonus equal to 0% of the material price variance if the variance were favourable. But Thomas bought a large quality of raw material and may cause large amount of inventory costs. If the purchasing manager's performance is evaluated solely on price variance, then the evaluation will be positive, as Thomas bargained effectively. However, these efficiency gains could be offset by higher inventory storage costs or higher inspection cost on Jigsaw production line. Performance measures increasingly focus on reducing the total costs of the company as a whole. In this case, Thomas could still base on the initial policy, but it also need to deduct possible inventory cost from material price variance.

Christine Tarrant

As a production manager, if the net material, labour, and variable overhead, the labour price variance and spending variances for variable and fixed overhead were favourable, she could receive a bonus equal to 4% of those favourable variances. According to her performance, it is not fair for Christine. Because there are many possible causes that Christine can't control them all. May be due to the poor design of products or processes and the materials efficiency variance increase or poor work in the manufacturing of the Jigsaws. Christine needs to ensure the efficiency of labour at the same time reduced the labour price.

Recommendations

a) the stand costing system

Jigsaw department collected information from the other departments about their production and inputs. Ideally, it should concern about its own standard production costs. Actually, in stead of the information that was collected from the department's purchasing manager and production manager, the information provided by the professional accountant both inside and outside seemed more reliable.

b) variance analysis

Variance analysis is mainly focus on providing an outcome of calculating the production and purchasing managers' bonuses. It is recommended that collect more other cost information from other departments to analyse the results.

c) the performance evaluation and reward system

For department's purchasing and production managers, it is not fair to determine their bonus only based on those variances were favourable or not. For example, purchasing manager could undertake to acquire excessive materials in order to gain own bonus which made the production manager reluctantly to bear the production cost. It is optimal and ideal to specify a bonus base, which combines them together and draw a conclusion after valuing their working performance

Conclusion

Standard costing is appropriate for organisations whose activities consist of a series of repetitive operations. It is therefore most suited to manufacturing organisations, since the processes involved are often of a repetitive nature. Companies use standard costs to trace the flow of costs through its accounting system. The standard cost system has three main advantages Motivation; Planning; Controlling. Companies who use the standard cost system need to do continue improvement to minimize the cost in every particular period.

Variance analysis is often used for performance evaluation and management uses. Two attributes of performance are commonly evaluated

¡¤ Effectiveness the degree to which a predetermined objective or target is met.

¡¤ Efficiency the relative amount of inputs used to achieve a given output level. The fewer the inputs used for a given level of output or the greater the output for a given level of input, the greater the efficiency.

To sum up, Jigsaw didn't achieve the profit level as the expectation. It may be due to the limitations of the standard costing system and variance; inexperience of the manager in the manufacture of jigsaws and the company had never produced jigsaws before.

Reference

1. Neish, W, Management accounting principles and applications, McGraw-Hill

. Mason, Ohio, Cost management accounting and control, Thomson/South-Western

. Barfield, J, Cost accounting traditions and innovations, South-Western College Pub.

4. Robert S. K, Management accounting ( ed.), Upper Saddle River, N.J

5. Maher, M, Cost accounting creating value for management, Irwin

Appendix

Price Variances for Materials purchased

Paper

Price Variance = (Actual Price ¨C Standard Price) Actual Quantity purchased

= ($ 8 - $10) 8,000 sq meters

= $16,000 F

Cardboard

Price Variance = (Actual Price - Standard Price) Actual Quantity purchased

= ($ 6. - $7.5) 8,500 sq. meters

= $10,00 F

Price Variances for Materials Used

Paper

Price Variance = (Actual Price ¨C Standard Price) Actual Quantity input

= ($ 8 - $10) 6,00 sq meters

= $1,600 F

Cardboard

Price Variance = (Actual Price - Standard Price) Actual Quantity input

= ($ 6. - $7.5) 5,150 sq. meters

= $6,180 F

Efficiency Variances for Materials Used

Paper

Efficiency Variance = (Actual Quantity ¨C Standard Quantity) Budgeted Input Price

= (6,00 ¨C (,15 0.5)) $10

= (6,00 ¨C 5,578.75) $10

= $7,1.50 U

Working

Actual Cost per Meter = Input Price Discount Percentage

= $10 0.8

= $8

Actual Quantity = Actual Total Cost / Actual Cost per Meter

= $50,400 / $8

= 6,00

Cardboard

Efficiency Variance = (Actual Quantity ¨C Standard Quantity) Input Price

= (5150 ¨C (15 0.)) $7.50

= (5150 ¨C 446) $7.50

= $5,15.50 U

Working

Actual Cost per Meter = Input Price Discount Percentage

= $7.50 0.84

= $6.0

Actual Quantity = Actual Total Cost / Actual Cost Per Meter

= $,445 / $6.0

= 5,150 meters

Cardboard Box

Efficiency Variance = (Actual Quantity ¨C Standard Quantity) Input Price

= ($,80 ¨C $,15) $.15

= $1.75 U

Efficiency Variance for Direct Labor

Efficiency Variance = (Actual Quantity ¨C Standard Quantity) Input Price

= ($14,850 ¨C ($,15 0.5)) $15

= ($14,850 ¨C ($11,157.50)) $15

= $55,87.50 U

Working

Actual Cost per Hour = Actual Cost ¨C $0.50

= $15 ¨C $0.50

= $14.50

Actual Quantity = Actual Total Cost / Actual Cost per Hour

= $15,5 / $14.50

= 14,850 hr

Efficiency Variances for Variable Manufacturing Overhead

Efficiency Variance = (Actual Quantity ¨C Standard Quantity) Input Price

= ($14,850 ¨C (,15 0.5)) $8.40

= ($14,850 ¨C $11,157.5) $8.40

= $1,017 U

Price Variances for direct labor

Price Variance = (Actual Price ¨C Standard Price) Actual Direct Labor Used

= ($14.50 ¨C 15.00) 14,850 hours

= $7,45 F

Working

Actual Direct Labor Used = $155 / $14.50 per hour

=14850 hours

Spending Variances for Variable Overhead Manufacturing Cost

Spending Variance = (Actual Price ¨C Budgeted Price) Actual Variable Overhead Used

= ($7.60 - $8.40) 14,850 hrs

= $11,880 F

Spending Variance for Fixed Overhead Cost

Spending Variance = (Actual Price ¨C Flexible Budgeted Price)

= ($5,000 - $5,000)

= 10,000 F

Bonus Schemes

Jason Cheng

% of Operating income if its greater than $60,000

Bonus = % $64,658

= $10,.74

Thomas Licuria

0% of Favorable material price variance based on used

Bonus = 0% (1,600 F + 6180 F)

= $,756

0% of Favorable material price variance based on purchased

Bonus = 0% (16,000 F + 10,00 F)

= $5,40

Christine Tarrant

4% of the following favorable variances

Materials efficiency variance = $ 1,504.75 U

Labour Efficiency Variance = $ 55,87.5 U

Variable overhead Efficiency = $ 1,017 U

Labour Price Variance = $ 7,45 F

Spending Variance for Variable overheard = $ 11,880 F

Spending Variance for Fixed overhead = $ 10,000F

Net Variances = $6,604 U

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Data structures and algorithms (Binary Tree)

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Data structures and algorithms

A major area of the computer is the storage of data for efficient search and retrieval, the main memory of a computer is linear consisting of a sequence of memory cells that are numbered 0,1,,… in order. However one of the simplest forms of data structure is the one-dimensional or linear array accessed by using the element numbers. Data items such as a list of names are usually stored in arrays and efficient methods are sought to handle the data. If the list is long it would be an advantage to sort the list in-order to greatly reduce the time the user spends waiting for the retrieval of the search criteria compared to a search on an unsorted list.

Several structures exist for the storage of data within the computers memory as listed above a one-dimensional array, two-dimensional array, stacks, queue (circular), linked lists, doubly linked lists, binary tree and heaps are just a few techniques in which algorithms have been based on the speed in which data is searched and stored in the computers memory.

A heap is a saturated binary tree structure; the two branches of each node lead to nodes with lower numerical values.

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In the example below, the items in the heap are numbers, and the heap is maintained with larger numbers floating to the top. Each item is a member of an array, and we make use of array numbers in order to deal quickly and effectively with the heap.

A heap works on the principle that items are interrelated item n in the heap is a larger number than item n and item n+1. When all the items are in this relationship you have a valid heap, each item is like a stone resting firmly on two under it.

Using weights could help use balance the tree for each specific item the calculation for each item in the tree will be its weight times its level number with the root being at level one.

The binary tree is used for the basis of this assignment has the methods for searching and storage is more efficient than the one-dimensional array. Pointers are used to link together the memory addresses (A pointer is a variable that hols the memory address) bellow is a schematic representation were each location is equal to One byte.

Declared variable called of type unsigned integer (age).

10110101 01110110 11110110 11101110

100 101 10 10 104 105 106 107 108 10 110 111 11 11 114 115 116 117 118 11

The unsigned integer age = 4bytes = bits

The following C# shows the key word struct which identifies the beginning of a structure definition and must be followed by the structure name, or tag.

Fig 1

Struct tree {

Char f_name ;

Int age;

}

within the braces following the structure name is a list of the structure member variables.

Fig

Struct tree {

Char f_name;

Int age;

} Tree_Node;

The example in fig shows that I have declared an instance of the tree structure

The data structure below is the first part of the assignment, which sets up a structure called carreg.

typedef struct carreg

{

char reg_num[7+1];

char Surname[5+1];

char Forename[0+1];

char Age_of_Owner[+1];

char Make[0+1];

char Model[15+1];

char Colour[15+1];

char cubic_capacity[5+1];

struct carreg next; // pointer (link) to the next node

int counter;

}list_entry;

To enable us to manipulate the structure members the following notation is used (-); this sign is used as shown in fig.

Fig

Cout list_entry-reg_num; print(display on screen) the reg_num.

The following source code has been commented, to show what is happening within the procedure.

//Assignment 1 - Andrew Trot man

//Attempt at a binary tree structure

#include stdio.h

#include conio.h

#include iostream.h

#include stdlib.h

#include string.h

#includeiomanip.h

typedef struct carreg

{

char reg_num[7+1];

char Surname[5+1];

char Forename[0+1];

char Age_of_Owner[+1];

char Make[0+1];

char Model[15+1];

char Colour[15+1];

char cubic_capacity[5+1];

struct carreg next; // pointer (link) to the next node

int counter;

}list_entry;

struct carreg start=NULL; //pointer to first entry

struct carreg last=NULL; //pointer to last entry

struct carreg previous=NULL; //pointer to a previous item

struct carreg find(char );

void display_by_Reg(struct carreg ,int);

void display_all(int);

int enterdata(int);

void Error();

int menu_select(void);

void remove(struct carreg ,struct carreg );

void Storeage(struct carreg ,struct carreg ,struct carreg );

void show_all(struct carreg ,int);

void view_by_Reg_list(int);

void search(struct carreg ,struct carreg );

int global_counter;

/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void main(void)

{

int count =1;

for(;;)//menu loop

{

switch(menu_select())

{

case 1 enterdata(count);

count++;

global_counter=count;

break;

case remove(&start,&last);

global_counter--;

break;

case view_by_Reg_list(global_counter);

break;

case 4search(&start,&last);

break;

case 5display_all(global_counter);

break;

case 6exit(0);

default

clrscr();cout Incorect Entry ;

}

clrscr();

}

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void display_by_Reg(struct carreg info , int file_count)

{

for(file_count; file_count = 0;file_count--)

printf( ---------------------------------------------------------------);

printf(%s| %-0s |%-0s, Entry No. , Reg_Num , Index );

printf( ---------------------------------------------------------------a);

printf( %d | %-0s | %-0d ,info-counter,info-reg_num,file_count );

if(file_count =0)

{

cout Press a key ;

getch();

}

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

int enterdata(int fred)

{

struct carreginfo;

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

//to-do test for duplicate registration.

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

info=(struct carreg )new list_entry;//allocate memory (dynamic)

cout FileNumber = fred ;

cout Is File number correct Please Enter Number to confirm.;

cin info-counter ;

if(info-counter !=fred)

{

Error();

//return to the menu if incorrect entry is encountered

//TO-Do reset the value sent to fred from main !!!

return 0;

}

else

{

clrscr();

cout PLEASE DO NOT ENTER Pre-Fixs (Q,O,Z)aa;

cout Please Enter Regn No. ; cin info-reg_num ;cout ;

find(info-reg_num );

if(!(info || info 0))

{

Error();

}

//To Do trap for duplicates at this point......

}

cout Enter the owners age ;

cin info-Age_of_Owner ;

cout Enter Owners Surname ;

cin info-Surname ;

cout Enter Forename ;

cin info-Forename ;

cout Enter Vehicle Make ;

cin info-Make;

cout Enter Vehicle Model ;

cin info-Model;

cout Enter Colour of Vehicle ;

cin info-Colour;

// Enter the rest of the Struct here !!

Storeage(info,&start,&last);//store the data in memory

return 0;

} // end of function enterdata

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

struct carreg find(char name)

{

struct carreg info;

info=start;

previous=NULL;

while(info)

{

if(strcmp(name,info-reg_num)==0)return info;

else

{

previous=info;

info=info-next;//get next

}

}

cout Registration not found endl;

return NULL;

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

int menu_select(void)

{

textbackground(BLUE); // change the color of the background and

textcolor(WHITE); // change the textcolor to white

clrscr(); // clear the screen and set the color.

char key[1];

int c;

gotoxy(1,4);cout Welcome to the car registration Assignment.;

gotoxy(16,6);cout 1. Add data.;

gotoxy(16,8);cout . Delete data.;

gotoxy(16,10);cout . Show Search criteria.;

gotoxy(16,1);cout 4. Search. ;

gotoxy(16,14);cout 5. Display all;

gotoxy(16,16);cout 6. Exit program.;

//the size of the structure is determined by the key word Sizeof(crreg) or

//list_entry....... can be used.

cout Size of Struct is sizeof(carreg) Bytes ;

do

{

gotoxy(16,0);cout Enter your choice ;

key[0]=getch();//get choice

c=atoi(key);//converts string to int

clrscr();//clear the screen

}

while (c0 || c6);//loop until valid selection

return c;//return menu choice

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void remove(struct carreg start, struct carreg last)

{

struct carreg info, find(char);

char tempreg[10];

cout Enter Registration ;

cin tempreg;

info=find(tempreg);

if(info)

{

if(start==info)//if its the first item

{

start=info-next;//index start point

if(start) previous=NULL;

else last=NULL;

}

else

{

previous-next=info-next;

last=previous;

}

delete info;//deallocate memory

}

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void Storeage(struct carreg i,struct carreg start, struct carreg last)

{

struct carreg old,p; //Local scope

p=start;

if(!last )//if its the first element

{

i-next=NULL;

last=i;

start=i;

}

old=NULL;

while(p)

{

if(strcmp(p-reg_num,i-reg_num)0)//Sort in assending order.

{

old=p;

p=p-next;

}

else

{

if(old)

{

old-next=i;

i-next=p;

return;

}

i-next=p;//new first element

start=i;

return;

}

}

(last)-next=i;//put on end

i-next=NULL;

last=i;

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void view_by_Reg_list(int counter_one)//display the registration entries.

{

struct carreg info;

counter_one = 1;

info=start;

if (start)//check if the list is not empty

{

while(info)

{

display_by_Reg(info,counter_one++);

info=info-next;//gets the next address

}

}

else

cout The list is empty.;

getch();

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void search(struct carreg start, struct carreg last)

{

clrscr();

gotoxy(1,);cout Search Function ;

struct carreg info, find(char);

char tempreg[10]; //create a temporary variable to

cout Enter Registration ;

cin tempreg;

info=find(tempreg);

if (info== NULL)

{

cout ; //information not found

}

else cout Search Information found info-reg_num

Is at this address &info-reg_num ;

getch();

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void display_all(int counter_one)//display the whole lot......

{

struct carreg info;

counter_one = 1;

info=start;

if (start)//check if the list is not empty

{

while(info)

{

show_all(info,counter_one++);

info=info-next;//gets the next address

}

}

else

cout The list is empty.;

getch();

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void show_all(struct carreg info,int file_count)

{

for(file_count; file_count = 0;file_count--)

gotoxy(1,);cout Record number

info-counter Stored At Address

&info-reg_num ;

gotoxy(,);cout Customer name Registration Number

setw(10) Make & Model setw(10) Colour ;

cout info-Forename info-Surname setw(0) info-reg_num

setw() info-Make info-Model setw() info-Colour ;

cout Owners age is info-Age_of_Owner ;

gotoxy(10,0);cout Press Any key to continue ;

getch();

clrscr();

if(file_count =0)

{

; //execute empty statement block.

}

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

void Error()

{

clrscr();

gotoxy(,10);

cout Error the file number entered is not in sequence. You can still continue to enter data but you will not be able to have access to the currnt error. Press Any key to Return to menu.;

getch();

}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

The above source code is essentially a doubly linked list and demonstrates the search, add and delete methods these are clearly shown as described in the following examples on testing the program.

Testing

On selecting option 1 "Add data." You are prompted for conformation of the record number if this entry is incorrect the program displays the following error message.

The message informs the user that the entry made is not in a sequence and gives its reasons.

Once a key is pressed the user is back to the main menu.

To do.

The function controlling this routine is not fully functional and requires a little more work to reset the values when returning to the entering of data.

Option will not operate until data has been entered into the tree.

PLEASE SEE NEXT PAGE

Option shows the data in-order with the entry points to the left and the sorted on the right as shown bellow

Option To Delete 5E5RT from the tree enter the registration number to delete that object from memory then to test it display the contents by pressing option . Shown bellow

Option 4Search.

On clearing the screen you enter the search function this function prompts the user to enter the search key(Registration number); on entering the registration number the following screen dump is displayed

Option 5 Display all

The following display is shown to the user one record at a time until the entries have been exhausted. They are also displayed in ascending order.

Option 6 closes the program.

Typical application

Where a binary tree data structure may be found.

A binary tree is an appropriate data structure when a large number of items need to be held in such a way that any item may be quickly accessed or a sequenced list is required. Additions can be easily handled since this requires only the adjustment of a single pointer. There are three methods in which the tree can be displayed they are as follows -

1. In-Order traversal.

. Pre-Order traversal.

. Post-Order traversal.

The following examples are shown bellow.

1. void inOrder (TreeNode treePtr) //recursive function

{

if(treePtr != NULL)

{

inOrder (treePtr-leftPtr);

printf (%d, treePtr-registration_number);

inOrder (treePtr-rightPtr);

}

}

. void preOrder (TreeNode treePtr) //recursive function

{

if (treePtr != NULL)

{

printf(%d, treePtr-registration_number);

preOrder (treePtr-leftPtr);

preOrder (treePtr-rightPtr);

}

}

. void postOrder (TreeNode treePtr) // recursive function

{

if (treePtr!= NULL)

{

postOrder (treePtr-leftPtr);

postOrder (treePtr-rightPtr);

printf(%d, treePtr-registration_number);

}

}

Such applications a RDBMS(relational database management system) would be a suitable candidate to store a large amount of data in a structure type manner(object).

For something a little less demanding the tree structure can be used to hold a file directory on a backing store so that any file can be quickly located.

The following source code demonstrates the use of a binary tree with the data randomly generated and duplicates removed.

#include stdio.h // used for printf

#include stdlib.h // required for rand()

#include conio.h

struct treeNode{

struct treeNode leftPtr;

char registration_number;

//enter the rest of the

//customer information here.

struct treeNode rightPtr;

};

typedef struct treeNode TREENODE;

typedef TREENODE TreeNode;

void insertNode (TreeNode , int);

void inOrder (TreeNode);

void preOrder (TreeNode);

void postOrder (TreeNode);

int main(void)

{

int i, item;

TreeNode rootPtr = NULL;

//generate a random set of numbers to test the traversal methods used below

printf(The numbers being placed in the tree are );

for (i = 1; i=0; i++) {

item = rand() % 50;

printf (%d, item);

insertNode (&rootPtr, item);

}

//call the following traversal functions

printf(The preorder traversal is);

preOrder (rootPtr);

printf(The inorder traverasl is);

inOrder (rootPtr);

printf( The postorder traversal is);

postOrder(rootPtr);

getch();

return 0; }

void insertNode (TreeNode treePtr, int value)

{

if (treePtr == NULL)

{

treePtr =new (TREENODE); //dynamic memory allocation

if (treePtr != NULL)

{

(treePtr)-registration_number = value;

(treePtr)-leftPtr = NULL;

(treePtr)-rightPtr = NULL;

}

else

printf (%d. No memory available., value);

} //go left

else

if(value (treePtr)-registration_number)

insertNode(&((treePtr)-leftPtr), value);

else // go right

if(value (treePtr)-registration_number)

insertNode (&((treePtr)-rightPtr), value);

else

printf( duplicate ); //Catch duplicate values

}

void inOrder (TreeNode treePtr) //recursive function

{

if(treePtr != NULL)

{

inOrder (treePtr-leftPtr);

printf (%d, treePtr-registration_number);

inOrder (treePtr-rightPtr);

}

}

void preOrder (TreeNode treePtr) //recursive function

{

if (treePtr != NULL)

{

printf(%d, treePtr-registration_number);

preOrder (treePtr-leftPtr);

preOrder (treePtr-rightPtr);

}

}

void postOrder (TreeNode treePtr) // recursive function

{

if (treePtr!= NULL)

{

postOrder (treePtr-leftPtr);

postOrder (treePtr-rightPtr);

printf(%d, treePtr-registration_number);

}

}

THE SOURCE CODE IS ON THE DISK FOR YOUR VIEWING.

Recursion.

The routines within this document to produce the desired output of traversing the tree use recursion, this means that it creates a tempory instance of itself or calls itself until the desired result is met.

Constructing a binary tree.

Addition.

As we construct a binary tree there are lots of considerations to make. The final shape of the tree including its depth (and therefore its efficiency for searching) is pretty much dependent on the order in which we add items to the growing tree. The following example using the standard rules, entering the data in the order YTRT, B50RTR, N88LOP, A5RTT, S4TGB, M887MFP this will produce a valid (and workable) binary tree- but after the 6th entry it will already be four levels deep.

Depending on the order in which you add items to a growing binary tree, you can end up with structures with more levels of depth than necessary. In fact, we could have known we would be in trouble when we find the root entry in the tree is YTRT. So close to the end of the alphabet the ideal root entry will be the one that does not waste its comparison, sending half of the possible searches one way and half the other. One way to do this is to balance the tree structure and this procedure is difficult to maintain particularly when deleting the root node.

However by using heaps instead of adding an item by dropping downward to a node and locating an appropriate empty spot we can add the item by writing it at the root. This however will displace the item already at the root, and to maintain the "heap property" we may have to do a little quick surgery to the rest of the tree.

An alternative method for adding an item to the binary tree proceeds as follows -

1. Put the item at the root, making necessary adjustments to the left and right nodes.

. Calculate the efficiency impact the sum of weight times level for each entry in the tree

. Start with the root node as 'Current node'

4. Rotate the items at the current node, so that the immediate left branch item and right branch item become temporarily, the root item; make heap corrections so that these trial rotations remain valid binary trees

5. Calculate the efficiency impact on each trial rotation

6. If a rotation produces a score better than before, you have gained efficiency. Adopt the changes permanently, move attention (the current node) one upward towards the root, and resume at step 4.

7. If no rotation produces a better score, start with the newly added item's node as 'current', and resume step 4.

8. At each stage, keep track of the lowest score, which represents the most efficient tree up to that point.

The end.

Please note that this sample paper on Data structures and algorithms (Binary Tree) is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Data structures and algorithms (Binary Tree), we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college papers on Data structures and algorithms (Binary Tree) will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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How did shakespeare show the inevitability of Romeo and Juliets love ending in tragedy?

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"Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude", translation by S.H Butcher. Aristotle tells us that drama is shown by drama, not told in narrative and is more philosophical than history because history tells us what has happened rather than tragedy dramatizing what may happen.

Events that have happened may be subject to coincidence or accidents, and may not have a clear cut cause and effect chain that reveals what may happen at any time and place because it is the way that the world operates, meaning they have little relevance to other people. Because of this, tragedy not only arouses pity but also fear, because the audience can envision themselves inside this cause and effect chain.

Katharsis is an Aristotelian term. It has caused a lot of debate. The word itself means "purging," and Aristotle seems to be using a medical metaphortragedy arouses the emotions of pity and fear in order to purge away their excess, to reduce these passions to a healthy, balanced proportion. Aristotle also talks of the "pleasure" that is proper to tragedy, meaning the aesthetic pleasure people gets from thinking about the pity and fear that are caused through an intricately constructed work of art.

The purpose of the Romeo and Juliet is to provide entertainment on several different levels. For instance there are the so-called " Penny Pitter's " who paid a penny to see the play and stood up in " pits " near the stage, who did not appreciate the more complicated works of Shakespeare such as the 14 line rhyming sonnets and liked the play for its crude sexual references instead. As a contrast to this, there were also the richer classes who paid vast amounts of money and sat up in the " Gods ", where they could better listen to and appreciate the beauty of Shakespeare's work.

It can also be said that there is also a large message about love embedded in the play, showing not only the tragic consequences of love but the good things it can bring i.e. the joy and happiness of Romeo and Juliet at the beginning of their Romance, and the union of the two families at the end of Romeo and Juliet, whilst grieving over their lost loved ones.

All throughout the play there are several references to the stars, moon, darkness and light and higher, supernatural powers. At the time lots of people would believe in their fate being determined by astrology, so it would have had relevance to them. These prophecies give the audience hints to the twist in the play and the tragic outcome.

The first prophecy appears in the prologue. There are several references to fate and the lover's romance ending in tragedy. Romeo and Juliet are referred to as " star-crossed lovers," indicating their Romance was a work of fate. Their love is also referred to as " death marked." This gives the impression that their love was fated to end in tragedy from the start.

In the first scene a conflict is played out between the Montagues and Capulets. This scene makes for an effective opening to the play because it sets up the idea of the vicious feuding and hatred between the two rival houses. From the very first scene the audience is given the impression of how unusual and dangerous Romeo and Juliet's love because of the strong bad history between the two families. In this scene you also see the princes warning to the two families that if they fight again they will pay with their lives. " If you ever disturb our streets again, your lives shall pay the forfeit of the peace." This has a large part to play later on in the play when Romeo is banished for slaying Tybalt.

After this there is a very long section of the play that shows the audience Romeos longing for the love of Rosaline. Romeo becomes very depressed with this, " bid a sick man in sadness make his will, a word ill urged to one that is so ill. In sadness, cousin, I do love a woman". The fact that Romeo loves Rosaline so much without even really knowing her gives the impression that he is more in love with the idea of being in love rather than actually properly falling in love with someone. This is reinforced later on in the play because he supposedly falls in love with Juliet as soon as he meets her. Maybe this plays a part in the Romance ending in tragedy because they're so blinded by this they don't think reasonably and take snap, rash decisions. This scene gives the audience a good impression of Romeos character and his views on love.

The deception of several characters has a large part to play in the tragic ending of the play. Deception runs strong throughout the play, starting with Romeo gate-crashing the Capulet ball in disguise, going somewhere he knew he was not welcome. After the ball Romeo also sneaks back to the Capulet mansion to try and see Juliet, and does the very dishonourable act of eavesdropping on Juliet speaking of her feelings, " Shall I hear more, or shall I speak at this? ". Romeo knows he should be honest and make his presence known but instead waits until he has fully heard Juliet's opinion of him. Friar Lawrence, although his intentions were good went behind both Capulet and Montague's back and married Romeo and Juliet, knowing their families wouldn't approve. This is very surprising as he is a holy man he is expected to be honest and good. Friar Lawrence does not only marry Romeo and Juliet without their parents consent he does not tell the families afterwards and keeps the deception up until the very end of the play, also formulating the devious plot of faking Juliet's death to prevent her marriage to Paris.

Juliet also had a large part to play in the deception of other characters in the play, such as when she forced the Friar into formulating the plot of Juliet's fake death by stating in Act 4 Scene 1, " If in thy wisdom thou canst give no help, do thou but call my resolution wise, and with this knife I'll help it presently. " She willing accepts the offer of this deceitful plan, choosing it over the option of coming clean with the rest of her family about her marriage to Romeo. In the act of faking death Juliet also deceives her father as she earlier consented to the marriage, and pretends to be pleased about her forthcoming marriage to Paris and tells her father, " I met the youthful lord at Lawrence's cell, and gave him what becomèd love I might, " which takes place after Juliet visits Friar Lawrence, meaning Juliet lied to her father knowing full well that she would not be marrying Paris and had no intention of ever loving him.

A large amount of the blame for Romeo and Juliet's death can be placed on their own characters, rather than the interference of other characters and fate. Both Romeo and Juliet are young an inexperienced and are obviously unable to deal with strongly stressful situations that they are not used to. Romeo does not only seem to have a deep capacity for love but for all emotions, and doesn't seem to be able to control and moderate them. For instance Romeo sneaks into the Capulet mansion just to catch a glimpse of Juliet in Act Scene , and kills his wife's cousin in a recklessly passionate and pointless duel when Tybalt slays Mercutio. Whilst Romeo knew of the Prince's warning and knew he should have been slain, he then complains to Friar Lawrence when he is let off lightly and banished so he can no longer see Juliet (Act Scene ). If he had waited a mere day after hearing the news of Juliet's death to kill himself the play could have ended happily.

Romeo seems to be very immature in the way he acts, and rushes into a marriage when he barely even knows Juliet. On several occasions Romeo gets a feeling of doom but ignores it, such as in Act 1 Scene 5 Romeo claims he had a dream that he is weary of, and when his friend Benvolio claims they will arrive at the Capulet's ball too late, Romeo says he fears they will arrive too early because his " mind misgives some consequence yet hanging in the stars shall bitterly begin his fearful date ". Romeo does know that his feeling of dread is justified, and going to the party sparks off the relationship that will end in his death. " Consequence hanging in the stars " is also another reference to their fate being controlled by the stars and planets, a theme that runs strongly throughout the play. Romeo receives a dream just before hearing of Juliet's death, of Juliet kissing his lips whilst he is dead not knowing this is a vision of the future, and maybe even a warning of the cruel trick fate is about to play on him. This quote is also sadly ironic because after this the kisses " breathed such life that I revived and was an emperor, " when in reality he remains dead and Juliet kills herself immediately afterwards by his side.

Although these qualities do contribute strongly to the outcome of the play, Romeo also has some very good qualities that appear. Amongst his friends Romeo seems witty, clever, well-liked and very loyal. It is obvious that it was intended for the audience to like Romeo.

At the beginning of the play Juliet appears to be a very obedient, sheltered and naïve child. Juliet does not seem to have thought about marriage, and when confronted with the idea of Paris she responds she will try to see if she can love him. This seems like a very childlike and ignorant conception of love. There is no mention of any friends Juliet's own age, and she seems uncomfortable talking about sex as you can see in Act 1 Scene when the Nurse goes on about a sexual joke at Juliet's expense. Despite this Juliet also seems to be stubborn, passionate and very determined. When her relationship with Romeo begins she races head-on into adulthood. She loses some of her previous childlike qualities such as her obedience, and openly defies her father in Act Scene 5 when she hears of her upcoming marriage to Paris, " I will not marry yet, and when I do, I swear It shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate." Here Juliet does not merely openly disobey both her parents but also try to put more emphasis on it by stating she'd rather marry the murderer of her cousin, almost trying to anger her mother in a show of defiance. This is a complete turnaround of how we saw Juliet's character at the beginning of the play.

Although Juliet is deeply in love with Romeo, she does not blindly follow him and is still sometimes able to think logically. After Romeo slays Tybalt, Juliet seems to almost turn on Romeo and refer to him in Act Scene 4 as, " A damned saint, an honourable villain! " Upon the news of Tybalt's death Juliet seems so grief stricken that she changes her opinion of Romeo, but when the Nurse puts shame upon Romeo Juliet seems to change her opinion again completely, seeming to be brought to her senses immediately by hearing shame put upon him. " O what a beast I was to chide at him! ". This also suggests Juliet's judgement is still affected by her passion. After this, Juliet seems to make a thought-through and heartfelt decision that Romeo must be her priority, and essentially makes a decision that cuts her from the rest of her family and the Nurse, a life long companion. When Juliet awakes from her death-like sleep to find Romeo dead, she does not commit suicide out of feminine weakness, rather than this she kills herself out of the intensity of her love, just as Romeo did. Also, her method of suicide took much more nerve than Romeo's. Whereas he merely drank poison, Juliet immediately summoned the courage to stab her self through the heart.

This characterisation is very unusual as stereotypically the female would mentally be weaker than the male, but here Juliet thinks things through logically more often than Romeo does and is stronger willed than him.

The actions and expectations of Juliet's parents seem to effect the choices Juliet makes and in turn effect the outcome of Romeo and Juliet's relationship and its tragic ending. Lord Capulet, although appearing to be giving Juliet the option whether to Marry Paris or not, soon turns angry and aggressive when she refuses, " Ill give you to my friend; and you be not, hang, beg, starve, die in the streets. " This pressure on Juliet for an arranged marriage merely hastens her into the idea that her love for Romeo is true, pure love. If there was no feuding between the parents of Romeo and Juliet there would never have been need for secrecy of the relationship and there would never have been such a tragic outcome. The parent's attitude towards this relationship forces Romeo and Juliet into secrecy, which is a main cause of the tragic end to the play.

Not only are the biological parents of Romeo and Juliet to blame, but also their " surrogate " parents have a large impact. Juliet's nurse arranges the marriage between Romeo and Juliet, knowing full well that their parents would never approve and there would be bad repercussions. The Nurse also offers absolutely no solace to Juliet when she finds out she will be forced to marry Paris, and even changes her opinion of Juliet's relationship with Romeo. " I think it best you married with the County… Romeo's a dishclout to him, " was the nurse's advice to Juliet after Juliet's row with her father over her arranged marriage in Act Scene 5. This would have given Juliet the feeling of having nobody to confide in and seek advice from. This would also have a negative effect on Juliet's relationship with the nurse, making her feel as if she has no friends in her own household and therefore no reason to stay there, putting strength in her resolve to be with Romeo.

Friar Lawrence acted as a surrogate father to Romeo, giving him advice and letting Romeo tell him things in confidence from the beginning. The Friar has one of the largest influences on the outcome of the play out of all the characters. It was his decision to marry Romeo and Juliet in secret knowing their parents wouldn't approve, even if it was in a bid to restore peace to Verona and end the feuding. The Friar panics after Romeo is banished and Juliet threatens to end her life, and comes up in the plan to fake Juliet's death in haste, without thinking. This in turn caused both Juliet and Romeo to lose their lives. These two acts are two of the biggest causes of the tragic end to the play. Friar Lawrence tries to provide advice to Romeo and Juliet and control the situation as best he can, but ends up making it worse by not thinking through his actions first. Despite these faults Friar Lawrence does give one good piece of advice, " These violent delights have violent ends…therefore love moderately. " Friar Lawrence warns Romeo that loving with such blind passion will cause the relationship to end badly, but the advice is ignored and the ending rings true to the Friars prediction.

All throughout the play Shakespeare gives hints of the outcome of the play. Many of the lines of several characters are extremely ironic, giving several references to fate and death, not knowing that there is more meaning in them than they had originally intended.

In Act 1 Scene whilst talking to a servant Romeo claims that he can read " mine own fortune in my misery. " This is obviously untrue as Romeo has no idea the twists and turns fate has in store for him later on in the play. Two scenes later Romeo makes a statement about love, " Is love a tender thing? Is it too rough, too rude, too boist'rous, and it pricks like thorn." This is very ironic because Romeo does not know the extent of the injury the love will deal him. Also, just one scene later Romeo completely changes his view on love, forgetting what he has just said, after meeting Juliet, he believes that his new love for Juliet is the greatest thing that has ever happened. Romeo does not know that his original idea was the correct one, and does not realise this is later on when love pricks him more than he thought it could.

Later on in the play during Act Scene where Romeo sneaks into the Capulet mansion to see Juliet, Romeo blesses the night, " O Blessed, blessed night! " This is ironic because Romeo has no idea he is blessing the night that eventually causes his own death and that of the person he has just fallen in love with.

After Romeo's banishment and return to Juliet to have their honeymoon, Romeo tells Juliet " I must be gone and live, or stay and die ". Romeo is again being ironic without knowing it because he does go, but returns and that is the cause of his death. In his next section of speech Romeo seems to jokingly accept death, " Let me be tane, let me be put to death… Come death and welcome! Juliet wills it so! " Romeo says this as a joke, tempting fate, now knowing that he will die soon afterwards.

Juliet claims she would rather be dead than marry Paris in Act Scene 5, " make the bridal bed in that dim monument where Tybalt lies. " She does not know that she will get her wish, not marry Paris and instead die in the very same monument where Tybalt lies. In the same scene Juliet tells the friar " If all else fail, myself have the power to die." Juliet keeps to her word and kills herself when all else does fail.

At the beginning of Act 4 Scene Juliet bids farewell to her mother and nurse, saying, " God knows when we shall meet again, " not knowing that the Friars plan would fail and indeed it would be the last time she would see either of these people. Immediately after this Juliet gives a whole list of scenarios where the Friars plan would fail and she would end up dying, but she misses out the one scenario that does come true and results in her death.

On two occasions in the play Romeo blames fate for the unfortunate events in the play. After slaying Tybalt in a fit of passion Romeo declares, " O I am fortunes fool! ", implying that he is at the mercy of fates cruel whims and he is a puppet and none of the previous events were his own fault. Also, after receiving the false news of Juliet's death Romeo shouts, " I defy you stars! ", saying again that it was fate that has brought about these events and Romeo is not going to be victim to them anymore. This is sadly ironic because in doing this," defying " fate and travelling to Mantua he accidentally causes both his and his lovers deaths.

" My grave is like to be my wedding bed." Juliet makes an ironically accurate prediction about her relationship with Romeo very early on, immediately after finding out his identity, but is quick to forget this when her love for Romeo blinds her.

It seems in several points throughout the play Romeo and Juliet both seem to tempt fate, not knowing the severity of these actions and the outcome.

Part of the reason for the tragic outcome of the play was also just consequence, which almost seems unrealistic in places. For instance the Friars letter not being able to reach Romeo because of the Friars brother not being able to enter Mantua but Balthasar is able to. Added to this the fact that Juliet awakens immediately after Romeo commits suicide.

The blame for the tragedy is shared out into many factors, the actions and character of Romeo and Juliet, their families, their surrogate parents, fate, and coincidence. There isn't anything that can be said is the single cause of Romeo and Juliet's death.

Shakespeare uses all of these factors all throughout the play to show the outcome of the play, and almost make it unavoidable. With all of these factors working against their Romance, Romeo and Juliet were doomed almost from the moment they met. Shakespeare utilises his own writing style and the characters personalities and backgrounds to tell the audience of the tragic outcome of the play, leaving them wondering if love is really strong enough to combat fate and the reality of the world, making the audience laugh and then become afraid at an astonishing speed.

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Enzymes

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Abstract

The enzyme that is responsible for the darkening of cut surfaces of fruits, vegetables and plants are called polyphenoloxidase. These enzymes, like all all other biological catalysts that cause us to exist, are often taken for granted. Without this enzyme, fruits, plants, and vegetables would-be left unprotected from different infections and diseases. There would be no response to the injuries, tissues in plants, fruits and vegetables might incur. Also, an absence polyphenoloxidase would leave humans without a skin pigment to tan. Thus, to understand this enzyme more in depth this paper will show the results of the research done on the effects of different concentrations of the enzyme, and the effects temperature will have on the rate of the reaction. In theory, the reaction rate should be proportional to enzyme concentration ("Factors Affecting Enzymes"); thus, the outcome of the experiment was successful. The results for the effects on temperature also appeared to be consistent with the hypothesis that reactions take place best in 5° C; temperatures close to normal body temperature.

Introduction

Have you ever wondered what causes the darkening of cut surfaces of fruits, vegetables and plants? First, to understand the process of this phenomena, we must understand how enzymes, the biological catalysts work. The process of an enzyme can be very complex. "The enzyme will catalyze the reaction by binding to a substrate molecule and altering its molecular structure so that the substrate is more readily converted to a different molecule or product" (Campbell 6, 7)

Cheap College Papers on Enzymes

Astoundingly, the enzyme that is responsible for the darkening of cut surfaces of fruits, vegetables and plants are called polyphenoloxidase. "Polyphenoloxidase catalyzes the oxidation of a catechol to ortho-quinone and then undergoes a series of changes to form a red product" (Koning). The reaction is

cathecol+ ½ O Polyphenoloxidase ortho-quinone + HO red product

Thus, the result of the reaction is a response to injury, the catechol is released and the enzyme is converted to ortho-quinone, which is an antiseptic to the injured tissue. So the brownish effect of the cut surface protects the plant from infection or disease (Koning). Moreover, the enzyme polyphenoloxidase can also be found in humans by a different name of tyrosinase, which produces skin pigment melanin, which causes tanning.

Thus, the objective of the trials that will be done on the enzyme polyphenoloxidase is to witness the effects of different concentrations of the enzyme, and effects the temperature will have on the rate of the reaction. The theory is rate of the enzyme reaction should be proportional to the enzyme concentration ("Factors Affecting Enzymes"). Also, the reactions of the temperature should react best in 5° C due to the closeness to normal body temperature.

Materials and Methods

Effect on Enzyme Concentration

The procedure to find out the effect of the polyphenoloxidase enzyme concentration and effects on temperature on polyphenoloxidase began, October 4, 00 and continued on October 11, 00. The first step of the experiment was to prepare the enzyme, polyphenoloxidase, by washing and peeling a potato. It was then important to chop it into pieces and blend it with 40 ml of phosphate buffer for 1 to minutes. The blending caused the tissues of the potato to homogenize. After the potato and the phosphate buffer were blended, the solution was then strained into a test-tube through two layers of cheesecloth in a funnel. Amazingly, the initial color of the filtered enzyme immediately changed from a cream color to a light brown as soon as it was poured into the test tube. The final steps of the preparation of the potato enzyme involved the filtration in the centrifuge for five minutes for the removal of cell wall, cell fragments and starch grains. The solution was then poured into a test-tube and then placed in a beaker of ice to keep the enzyme cold.

During the preparation of the polyphenoloxidase enzyme, the materials that were going to be used in the experiment were prepared, such as one clean empty test-tube, one Spec. tube, and one Spec. tube half filled with the phosphate buffer. A very interesting instrument was used and it was called the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer; it is used for measuring the transmission of light by comparing various wavelengths. It was vital that the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer was set to 50 nm and set to zero, before the experiment began. The Spec. tube that was half filled with the phosphate buffer was used to set the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer to zero. The final step that was done before the trial test took place was the preparation of the substrate. The preparation of the substrate involved the mixing of 10 ml of 0.006 cathecol solution with 40 ml of the phosphate buffer in a beaker.

Finally, all necessary steps were taken to begin the trial test of the experiment. Using a pipette, 10.0 ml of the substrate was mixed with 0.4 ml of the enzyme extract, and .6 ml of the phosphate buffer in a test-tube. The test-tube was immediately transferred to the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer and the stop watch was started. There was a Spec. reading every minute for 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, the test-tube was taken out, shook briefly and put back in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer for several more minutes. The trial was completed and the Spec. readings were taken.

Next, the real trial was preformed, known as trial one. This time there was a control group. In the control .5 ml of the enzyme and 5.5 ml of buffer were mixed together. In another test-tube the solutions that were mixed included .5 ml of enzyme, .5 ml of buffer, and 5 ml of buffer-substrate. The control test-tube was first put in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer and only one control reading was taken. The control was immediately taken out and the trial test-tube was quickly put in. Spec. readings were taken every minute for 10 minutes. After the Spec. readings of the test-tube trial, the control reading was again put in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer for one final control reading.

Following the first trial, the second trial began. The second trial involved the combination of .8 ml of enzyme, . ml of buffer, 5 ml of buffer-substrate. The control trial involved .8 ml of enzyme and 5. ml of buffer. The control test-tube was first put in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer and only one control reading was taken. The control was immediately taken out and the trial test-tube was quickly put in. The Spec. readings were taken every minute for 10 minutes. After the Spec. readings of the test-tube trial, the control reading was again put in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer for one final control reading.

Lastly, for the third trial for the effect of enzyme concentration, 1 ml of enzyme,

5 ml of buffer-substrate were combined. For the control group 1 ml of enzyme and 5 ml of buffer were mixed. The control test tube was first put in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer and only one control reading was taken. The control was immediately taken out and the trial test-tube was quickly put in. The Spec. readings were taken every minute for 10 minutes. After the Spec. readings of the test-tube trial, the control reading was again put in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer for one final control reading.

After all of the trials were completed, the results were plotted on a same piece of graph paper. To find the initial rate of the enzyme concentration, a straight line was drawn through as many points that could form a straight line. Thus, the initial rate was found in the slope of the straight line.

Temperature Effect

Following the experiment of the effect of enzyme concentration, another procedure was done, to see the temperature effects on the polyphenoloxidase enzyme. The procedure involved the preparation of the enzyme as described before. Then Spec.0 Spectrophotometer was set up the same way as in the previous experiment. As in the past experiment, the buffer-substrate was also prepared. However, in each of the four test- tubes that would be tested, ml of buffer, and a required amount of enzyme would be added. So a trial test was done by adding 5 ml of buffer-substrate, and .5 ml of the enzyme. It was then placed in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer and readings were made every minute for five minutes and thus the required amount of enzyme was established. Finally, by establishing required amount of enzyme, .5 ml of enzyme and ml of buffer were poured into four different test-tubes. The test-tube that was the control was kept at room temperature, the second test-tube was placed boiling water for four minutes and then cooled under the water at room temperature. The third test-tube was boiled at 5 0C, and then cooled as well. The fourth test- tube was placed in a beaker of ice. The experiment began with the placing of each test tube one after the other in the Spec.0 Spectrophotometer in sequential order for 10 minutes while also noting the readings.

Results

Enzyme Concentration Reaction

The preparation of the phosphate buffer, cathecol and phenolxidase yielded a promising outcome. After much preparation, quick moving and contemplation on the experiment which involved four trials the outcome was graphed, as seen in the graph of The Effect of Enzyme Concentration. Then the initial rate was figured out and graphed as seen in the graph of Initial Rate of Enzyme Concentration. A certain pattern was noticed in the effect the substrate had on the enzyme concentration. In the test trial, 10.0 ml of the substrate was mixed with 0.4 ml of the enzyme extract, and .6 ml of the phosphate buffer in a test-tube. The initial rate of this enzyme concentration turned out to be .10608 Spec. per min. During the very first trial, in the control .5 ml of the enzyme and 5.5 ml of buffer were mixed together. In another test-tube the solutions that were mixed included .5 ml of enzyme, .5 ml of buffer, and 5 ml of buffer-substrate. The initial rate of this enzyme concentration turned out to be .115 Spec. per min.

The second trial involved the combination of .8 ml of enzyme, . ml of buffer,

5 ml of buffer-substrate. The control trial involved .8 ml of enzyme and 5. ml of buffer. The initial rate of this enzyme concentration turned out to be .1185 Spec. per min. Finally, in the third trial for the effect of enzyme concentration, 1 ml of enzyme, 5 ml of buffer-substrate were combined. For the control group 1ml of enzyme and 5 ml of buffer were mixed. The initial rate of this enzyme concentration happened to be .7 Spec. per min.

Effect of Temperature Rate of Reaction

In the second part of the experiment, how the phenolxidase would be affected in different temperatures was the primary focus. The outcome of each treated tubes as compared with the control was varied and can seen in the graph of Temperature Effects. Compared to the control, the test tube that was placed in boiling water denatured the enzyme and caused its relative rate of reaction to stay the same. The test-tube that was

5 0C compared to the control had the best relative rate of reaction since it is pretty close to the normal body temperature. The test-tube that stayed in the ice-bath, had very little activity in the ice bath due to the enzymes and substrate moving at a very slow speed so there was not much interaction. Finally, the control itself that was at room temperature moved at a moderate speed. Thus, it was shown that significance of each temperature effect was very important; because it increased the reaction of polyphenoloxidase, decreased the reaction, or denatured the enzyme.

Discussion

The objective of this experiment was to find the effects of different concentrations, and temperatures on enzyme reactions. In theory, the reaction rate should be proportional to enzyme concentration (Factors Affecting Enzymes ). Thus, during each concentration trial the absorbance should have increased with time like it had in the entire trial test and the other three trials.

First of all, errors and problems could have occurred early in the experiment during the preparation of the enzyme when there might have been an accidental dropping of some mixture while decanting the potato. Other problems included the fast pace of the experiment, the solution for the trials had to be made very quickly especially when it concerned the transfer of the enzyme. Last but not least, the major error in the experiment had occurred within the Spectrophotometer, when it broke down in the middle of trial . The test tube had to be immediately transferred to another Spectrophotometer, and continued from there.

The second part of the experiment was based on the different temperature effects of enzyme reactions. As based on the hypotheses, the test-tube that was 5 0C had the best relative rate of reaction since the reaction took place close to normal body temperature. The test-tube that stayed in the ice-bath, had very little activity in the ice bath due to the enzymes and substrate moving at a very slow speed so there was not much interaction as expected. The test tube that was placed in boiling water at 100° C denatured the enzyme and caused its relative rate of reaction to stay the same. Thus, it was shown that significance of each temperature effect was very important; because it increased the reaction of polyphenoloxidase, decreased the reaction, or denatured the enzyme. Thus, the enzymes' optimal temperature is around body temperature, when most reactions occur.

Errors that could have occurred with this experiment seem to be very minimal, since part of the experiment was a repeat of the previous trials that were done on the effect of different enzyme concentrations. An error could have been made with finding the required amount of enzyme to use. Errors could have taken place during the Spec. readings, when each of the four tubes were sequentially being put in the Spec. and taken out after the reading. This was especially frustrating when everything was going on at such a fast pace that there could have definitely been a mix-up of the tubes with different temperatures.

Work Cited

Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. Biology Sixth Edition. New York

Benjamin Cummings, 00.

Factors Affecting Enzymes Natural Toxins Research Center at Texas A&M University

- Kingsville . 8 Oct. 00 http//ntri.tamuk.edu/cell/enzyme.html

Koning, Ross E. Structure-Activity Relationships . Plant Physiology Website. 14.

8 Oct. 00 http//koning.ecs.ctstateu.edu/Plant_Physiology/enzymelab.html

Work Cited

Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. Biology Sixth Edition. New York

Benjamin Cummings, 00.

Factors Affecting Enzymes Natural Toxins Research Center at Texas A&M University

- Kingsville . 8 Oct. 00 http//ntri.tamuk.edu/cell/enzyme.html

Koning, Ross E. Structure-Activity Relationships . Plant Physiology Website. 14.

8 Oct. 00 http//koning.ecs.ctstateu.edu/Plant_Physiology/enzymelab.html

Please note that this sample paper on Enzymes is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Enzymes, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Enzymes will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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